Endocrine System

• Endocrine system consists of glands that produce and secrete hormones.

• Hormones are the chemical messengers that are secreted directly into the blood which carries

them to organs and tissues of the body to exert their funtion.

• The glands may be exocrine or endocrine type (definitions)

Functions of Hormones

Conrtol growth and development of body

Regulate Metabolism and energy balance

Regulates reproductive functions, cognitive functions and mood.

Maintains body temperature and thirst reflex.

Regulate contraction of smooth muscles and cardiac muscles.

Regulate chemical composition and volume of interstitial fluid.

Helps to establish circadian rhythm.

Control of Nervous and Endocrine system over the production and sectretion of hormones
• Nervous system and Endocrine system work together to coordinate all the other systems of
the body and regulate homeostasis.
• Nervous system releases neurotransmitters and endocrine system release hormones.
• Most hormones circulate through the blood and bind to the receptor on the target cells
which are far from the site of release.
• Neurotransmitters also bind to target cells but these receptors lie close to the site of release ,
it can be a muscle, gland or neuron.
• Hormones have a slow onset but action is for longer duration.
• Some neurotransmitters act within milliseconds and for a shorter duration of action.

 Regulation of hormone secretion prevents overproduction or underproduction of a

hormone to help maintain homeostasis as follows :-
 Through nervous system
 Chemical changes in the blood
 Hormones (blood Ca2+ level regulates the secretion of parathyroid hormone)
 Comparison between Exocrine and Endocrine glands
• Exocrine Glands • Endocrine Glands
• Exocrine glands secrete their products(secretions) • Endocrine glands secrete hormones. They are
into the ducts. None of them are hormones. ductless glands . Secrete hormones directlu into
• These glands include sudoriferous (sweat) glands, the interstitial fluid that surround them.
sebaceous (oil) glands, digestive glands and many • These hormones diffuse into the blood stream and
other such glands throughout the body are carried to target cells throughout the body e.g
thyroid hormones from thyroid gland.

The hormones having far away

target sites and are release into the
Blood stream to reach the target site
are called circulating hormones
Local hormones :- These hormones do not circulate through the blood stream They act on the
same cell that secretes them called autocrine glands.
The paracrine glands act on the neighbouring cells.
Classification of Hormones (based on solubility)
Lipophilic hormones
Mostly derivatives of cholestrol.
Bind to intracellular receptors.
e.g Steroid hormones, estrogen,androgen,
Glucocorticoids, cholecalciferol,thyroxine etc.

Water soluble hormones

Bind to cell surface receptors.
Stimulate the release of secondary messengers.
e.g amines, peptides, human growth hormone, insulin.
Chemical classification.
Steroids :- derived from cholestrol e.g testosterone, progesterone,aldosterone, androgens,
cortisol, calciferol etc.
Amines :- These are derivatives of amino acid tyrosine. E.g T3, T4, epinephrine,
norepinephrine histamine (local hormone derived from histidine, stored in mast cells
Peptides:- These are short chain amino acids. E.g oxytocin, vasopressin
Proteins-long chains of linked amino acids. E.g insulin, glucagon (local hormones released
from pancreas)
Glycoproteins :- FH, TSH, FSH
Eicosanoids :- These are small fatty acid derivatives e.g prostaglandins& leukotrienes
(derived from arachidonic acid
.
Mechanism of Action of Lipid Soluble Hormones

• Lipid soluble hormones bind to

their receptors inside target
cells.

• Steroid hormones like

testosterone, androgens, glucoco
etc bind to cytoplasmic
receptors in the cell.

• Thyroid hormone, vit D and

retinol bind to nuclear receptors.

• These hormones are

transcription factors,can
regulate chain expression and
protein synthesis.
Mechanism of action of Water soluble hormones

• Water soluble hormones cannot cross the cell

membrane so these receptors are located on the
cell surface.
• These receptors are integral transmembrane
proteins. e.g G-protein coupled receptor.
In the G- protein couled receptor mechamism ,
hormone acts as the first messenger and cAMP
functions as the second messenger
Hormone interactions :- 3 types of effects are seen :-

• Permissive :- Action of one hormone on target cells require a simultaneous presence of a

second hormone to exert its effect.e.g thyroid hormone is permissive for growth hormone.
• Synergistic :- The effect pf two hormones together is greater than the effect of each hormone
acting alone. E.g normal development of oocytes in the ovary requires FSH from anterior
pitutary and estrogens from ovary.
• Antagonistic:- One hormone opposes the action of another hormone. E.g insulin lowers and
glucagon increases the blood glucose levels.
• Regulation of secretion normally prevents overproduction or underproduction of hormones to
help maintain homeostasis.
• Hormone secretion is regulated by
• Signals from nervous system
• Chemical changes in the blood (pH, blood volume etc)
• Other hormones
• Negative feedback system
Hypothalamus and pituitary gland :-
• Pituitary gland is a pea shaped gland present in the hpophyseal fossa of sella turcica of
sphenoid bone.

• Pituitary gland or hypophysis is called the master endocrine gland.

• It has two parts - anterior pituitary(adenohypophysis) – forms 75% of the total weigh of
the gland , Posterior pituitary (neurohypohpysis) – Composed of neural tissue.

• It secretes seven hormones that controls other endocrine glands(tropic hormones).

• Hypothalamus

• Is a small part present just below the thalamus.

• It forms a major link between endocrine and nervous system.

• Regulates growth, development, metabolism and homeostasis.

• Secretes nine different hormones which control the secretion of pituitary hormones.

• Pituitary gland is attached to hypothalamus by infundibulum.

 Hormone Target organ Physiological
effect

Thyroid stimulating Thyroid gland Stimulates secretion of thyroid

hormone hormone
Anterior Adrenocotico tropic Adrenal gland Stimulates secretion of
pituitary gland hormone (ACTH) glucocorticoids (cortisol)
Melanocyte stimulating brain Darkening of skin
hormone
Prolactin Mammary gland Milk production
Leutinizing hormone Ovary and testis Control of reproductive function
Follicle stimulating Ovary and testis Control of reproductive function
hormone
Growth hormone Liver, adipose Promotes growth, controls protein,
tissue carbohydrate and lipid metabolim

Posterior Oxytocin Ovary & testis Stimulates milk ejection and

pituitary uterine contraction
hormone
Anti-diuretic kidney Conservation of water
hormone(ADH)
Anterior pituitary hormones
• The hypothalamus consists of neurosecretory neurons which secrete hormones that
control the secretion of hormones from anterior pituitary.
• The stimulating and inhibiting hormones of the hypothalamus are carried to the
anterior pituitary via hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal veins.
• Specific hypothalamic hormones bind to receptors on specific anterior pituitary cells
thus modulating the release of hormone they produce.
• Control of secretion by anterior pituitary is regulated by two methods
• By hypothalamus
• By negative feedback mechanism
Control by the hypothalamus
Influenced Secreted by Hypothalamic releasing Hypothalamic inhibiting
Five hormones
Anterior released by the hypothalamus
pituitary hormone
hormone control the secretion by the anterior pituitary
hormone
gland.
Human Growth Somatotrophs Growth hormone - Growth hormone inhibiting
hormone(HGH) releasing hormone(GHIH)
(Somatotropin) hormone(GHRH) (somatostatin)
‘

Thyroid stimulating Thyrotrophs Thyrotropin releasing Growth hormone inhibiting

hormone(TSH) hormone(TRH) hormone(GHIH)
(thyrotropin) somatostatin

Prolactin Lactotrophs Prolactin releasing Prolactin inhibiting

hormone(PRH) hormone-PIH (dopamine)
FSH Gonadotrophs Gonadotropin releasing
hormone(GnRH)
LH Gonadotrophs Gonadotropin releasing
hormone(GnRH)

Adrenocoticotropic Corticotrophs Corticotropin releasing

hormone hormone(CRH)
Melanocyte Corticotrophs Corticotropin releasing dopamine
stimulating hormone(CRH)
hormone
Negative feedback control :-
Secretory activity of three types of anterior pituitary cells (thyrotrophs, corticotrophs, and
gonadotrophs) decreases when blood levels of their target gland hormones rise. E.g the
increased levels of of cortisol in blood decreases the secretion of both ACTH and
Corticoptropin releasing hormone (CRH).
Human Growth Hormone (HGH)

• Most abundant anterior pituitary hormone secreted by the somatotroph cells.

• Mainly stimulates liver, muscle, cartilage and bone to synthesize and secrete insulin like
growth factors (IGF’s)
• IGF promotes the growth of body cells specifically bone growth by stimulating osteoblasts,
protein synthesis, tissue repair and lipolysis in adipose tissues resulting in increased use of
fatty acid for ATP production by cells.
• HGH also influences carbohydrate metabolism by decreasing glucose uptake, thus
preserving glucose for making available to neurons for ATP production during scarcity.
• Also stimulates liver to secrete glucose into the blood.
• It is inhibited by GHIH (Somatostatin).
Stimuli that promote the secretion of growth hormone include:-
 Decreased fatty acid levels induces lipolysis in adipose tissues
 Increased amino acids in blood
 Deep sleep
 During stress and vigrous exercise
Gonadotropins
• GnRH from the hypothalamus stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete Follicle-stimulating hormone(FSH)
and Leutinizing hormone(LH)
• In females, FSH and LH stimulate the development of ovarian follicles and secretion of estrogen by
follicles.
• LH also stimulates ovulation, formation of corpus luteum, and secretion of progestrone and estrogens
(female sex hormones) by corpus luteum.
• In males, LH stimulates production of testosterone(male sex hormone).
• FSH and testosterone stimulate sperm production in testes.

Thyroid stimulating hormone

Also called thyrotropin. It stimulates synthesis and release of thyroid hormones by thyroid gland. Its
secretion is stimulated by TRH and suppressed by GHIH.

Prolactin (PRL)
Promotes milk production by mammary glands (with permissive action of other hormones such as TRH and
estrogen).
Prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH) suppresses secretion of PRL.
Prolactin releasing hormone stimulates secretion of PRL
Adrenocorticotropic hormone(ACTH)

• Also called corticitropin. Stimulates the secretion of glucocoticorids( mainly cortisol) by the adrenal
cortex of adenal gland and is controlled by CRH from hypothalamus.

• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) – Secretes melanin thus darkening of skin.

• Excess release of CRH stimulates its production and dopamine inhibits MSH.

Posterior Pituitary Hormones

• Does not synthesize hormones but stores and releases two hormones.

• Posterior pituitary contains axon terminals of neurosecretory cells whose cell bodies (neuronal cell
bodies of paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei) are in the hypothalamus.

• The hormones produced by hypothalamus and stored by posterior pituitary are :-,
Oxytocin and Antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

• The hypothalamus connects to posterior pituitary via hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract for transport
of hormones.
• The hormones pass into the posterior pituitary via capillary plexus in the infudibulum
Oxytocin

• During childbirth, stretching of cervix of the uterus stimulates the release of oxytocin which in turn
enhances contraction of uterine smooth muscles.

• After delivery, it stimulates milk ejection from mammary glands in response to mechanical stimulus
provided by a suckling infant.
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
• ADH causes kidneys to conserve water and return to blood thus decreasing urine production.
• Decreases water loss through sweating.
• Increases blood pressure by causing constriction of arterioles. Thus also called vasopressin.
Following is the mechanism of regulation of ADH

• Neurosecretory cells of hypothalamus secrete ADH in response to elevated blood osmotic pressure,
dehydration, decreased blood volume, pain, or stress.

• Alohol is an inhibitor of ADH.

Pituitary gland disorders
Pituitary dwarism :-
• Hyposecretion of HGH during growth years slows bone growth, and the epiphyseal plate close before
normal height is achieved.
Gigantism
• Hypersecretion of HGH during childhood causes abnormal increase on length of long bones. The
person grows to be very tall.
Acromegaly
• Hypersecretion of HGH during adulthood. No further lengthening of the long bones because the
epiphyseal plates are already closed, the bones of hand, feet, cheeks, and jaws thicken and other tissues
enlarge. Skin thickens and develops furrows.
Diabetes insipidus
Caused due to defect in antidiuretic hormone (ADH) receptors or an inability to secrete ADH.
Neurogenic diabetes insipidus : Results from hyposecretion of ADH usually caused by brain tumor, head
trauma that damages the posterior pituitary or hypothalamus.
Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus : The kidneys do not respond to ADH. The ADH receptors may be non
functional.Common symptoms : excretion of large volumes of urine, resulting in dehydration and thrist.
bedwetting in children is common.
Galactorrhoea :- secretion of breast milk by men/women when not pregnant
Thyroid gland :-
• The gland is butterfly shaped and located just inferior to larynx (voice box).
• It is composed of right & left lobes, one on either of the trachea, connected by isthmus, anterior to trachea
• It is made up of spherical sacs called thyroid follicles.
• Each follicle consists of :- follicular cells : Thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine (T4)
triiodothyronine (T3)
parafollicular cells :- Calcitonin (calcium regulating hormone)
Formation, Storage And Release of Thyroid Hormones
• Iodine trapping :- Iodine ions are actively transported from the blood into the cytosol of thyroid
follicular cells. Thyroid follicular cells trap these ions.
• Synthesis of thyroglobulin :- Follicular cells also synthesize TGB. It is a large glycoprotein produced in
the RER of cytoplasm of follicular cells is released into the lumen of the follicle by exocytosis.
• Oxidation of Iodine :- I- I0 (oxidaton) so that it can bind to tyrosine, an amino acid of TBG in the
lumen.
• Iodination of Tyrosine :- Iodine atoms combines with tyrosine molecules of thyroglobulin. Binding
of one iodine atom forms monoiodotyrosine(T1), two atoms combine to form di-iodotyrosine(T2).
T1 and T2 molecule combine to form T3 and two T2 molecules form T4.
These molecules form colloids.
• Pinocytosis and digestion of colloid :- The colloid molecules re-enter the follicular cell by pinocytosis
and merge with the lysosome. In the lysosome, the digestive enzymes breakdown the TGB molecule,
thus seperating the T3 and T4.
• Secretion of Thyroid hormones :- T3 and T4 are lipid soluble and diffuse through the plasma
membrane into the interstitial fluid and then into the blood. T4 is secreted in larger quantity than T3 but
T3 is more potent than T4. Also most of the T4 after entering a body cell is converted to T3.
• Transport in blood :- More than 99% of both T3 and T4 combine with Thyroxine binding globulin(TBG), a
Synthesis of Thyroid hormones
Action of Thyroid Hormones :-
• They increase basal metabolic rate, regulate the rate of oxygen consumption and cellular metabolism of
carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins increases.
• Stimulate lypolysis and enhance cholestrol excretion. Thus reducing blood cholestrol levels.
• Increase the use of glucose and fatty acids for ATP production.
• Regulate the development and growth of nervous tissue and bones.
• Increase body temperature (calorigenic effect).
• Stimulate synthesis of Na+/K+ ATPase.
• Enhance some actions of catecholamines.
• Stimulate protein synthesis.
Factors Increasing The Secretion of Thyroid Hormones
• Increased ATP demand
• Cold enviroment
• Hypoglycemia
• High altitude
• Pregnancy
Regulation of Thyroid Hormone secretion
Calcium regulationg Hormones :-

• Calcitonin :- It is produced by parafollicular cells of thyroid gland.

• Parafollicular cells /C cells lie between the follicles of thyroid gland.

• It is a hypocalcemic hormone ; decreases the level of calcium in blood by inhibiting the
action of osteoclasts (the cells that breakdown extracellular matrix of bone, reabsorbtion of
bony matrix).
• Miacalcin, a calcitonin extract from salmon is 10 times more potent than human
calcitonin.
• It is used to treat osteoporosis.
• Secretion of calcitonin is controlled by a negative feedback system, by the levels of calcium
itself.
• High blood calcium levels stimulate the secretion and low blood calcium levels inhibit
the secretion.
• It lowers the blood levels of Ca2+ and HPO42- by inhibiting bone reabsorption by
osteoclasts.
• This accelerates uptake of Calcium and phosphates into the bone extracellular matrix.

• Parathyroid hormone :-
• Produced by chief cells of parathyroid gland.
• Parathyroid gland are the 4 small, round masses of tissue embedded in the posterior surface
of the thyroid gland
• This hormone is the major regulator of Ca2+ , Mg2+, and HPO4- ions in the blood.
• It increases calcium levels in blood by increasing the activity of osteoclasts.
• Increases bone reabsorption by osteoclasts releases Ca2+ and HPO4- ions into the blood.
• Ca2+ are reabsorbed and HPO4- ions are excreted by
the kidneys.
• Promotes formation of calcitriol (active form of vit D)
• Increases the rate of dietary Ca2+ and Mg2+ ,
reabsorption.
Regulation of secretion of calcitonin and parathyroid hormone

Blood calcium level directly controls the secretion of both calcitonin

and parathyroid hormone via negative feedback.
Disorders of thyroid gland
Hyperthyroidism : E.g Grave’s disease multinodular giotre, Thyroid storm

Hypothyroidism :- E.g Hashimotos thyroiditis, cretinism. Myxodema

• Congenital hypothyroidism :- Previously called cretinism. It is a severe deficiency of
thyroid hormone in newborns.
• It causes impaired neurological function, stunted growth, and physical deformities.
• It may occur due a problem in baby’s thyroid gland or lack of iodine in mother’s body
during pregnancy.
• Myxoedema :- Severe hypothyroidism in adults in which there is accumulation of
hydrophilic mucopolysaccharides in the skin and other tissues.
• It is more common in women.
• Myxoedema coma is uncommon but life threatening.
• Occurs in patients with long standing hypothyroidism.
• It may be precipitated by a climate induced hypothermia, infection, drug therapy and other
systemic conditions.
Symptoms and signs of Myxoedema Coma
• Weakness or lethargy. Confusion.
• Hypothermia (low body temperature)
• Inflammation of body parts such as lower legs, face, and tongue.
• Difficult breathing
• Fluid buildup around the lungs and heart (peural and pericardial effusions)
• Slow heart rate
• Seizures
• Hallucinations
• Reduced function of digestive system.
Hashimoto‘sThyroiditis :-
• Also called chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis.
• An autoimmune disease in which thyroid gland is slowly destroyed.
• Over time, the thyroid gland may enlarge forming a painless goitre with weight gain,
fatigue, constipation, depression,, hair loss and general pain.
Grave’s Disease :-
• Common form of hyperthyroidism.
• Autoimmune disorder in which a person produces antibodies that mimic the action of
thyroid stimulating hormone TSH.
• The antibodies continually stimulate thyroid gland to grow and produce thyroid
hormones, which results in enlarged thyroid, and exophthalmos (protruding eyes).
Signs and symptoms of Grave’s Disease :-
• Anxiety and irritability
• Tremors of hands and/or fingers.
• Heat sensitivity and an increase in perspiration or a warm, moist skin.
• Weight loss, despite normal eating habits.
• Enlargement of the thyroid gland (goitre).
• Bulging eyes (Grave’s ophthalmology)
• Thick, red skin usually on the shins or tops of the feet (Grave’s dermopathy).
• Rapid or irregular heartbeat (palpitations).
• Frequent bowel movements.
• Sleep disturbance.
• Fatigue

Multinodular Goitre :-
• Multiple nodules are present on an enlarged thyroid gland.
• May occur due to iodine deficiency, genetic factors, history of autoimmune thyroid
condition.
• If thyroid gland is not making enough thyroid hormone, pituitary gland in the brain will
release more of TSH.
• Excess TSH can cause thyroid to enlarge and creat a multinodular goitre.
Parathyroid gland disorders ;-
• Low parathyroid hormone leads to deficiency of blood calcium levels.
• There is rapid depolarization of neurons and muscle fibres, this leads to
rapid and spontaneous action potentials. This causes twitching, spasms and tetany of

skeletal muscle.
Hyperparathyroidism :-
• An elevated level of PTH causes excessive resorption of bone matrix, raising blood
calcium and phosphate ion levels causing bones to become soft and are easily fractured.
• High blood calcium levels promotes formation of kidney stones.
Adrenal glands :-

• Pyramid shaped . Present superior to each kidney

• 3-4cm in height, 2-3cm in width. Less tha1cm thick, highly vascularized.

• It is differentiated into two strcturally and functionally distinct regions :-

Outer adrenal cortex (80-90%)
Inner adrenal medulla
• Adrenal cortex has 3 different zones :-
• Outer zone is inner to the connective tiisue covering , called Zona glomerulosa. It secretes
mineralocorticoids. They affect the mineral homeostasis.
 Aldosterone is the major mineralocorticoid.
. It regulates homeostasis of Na+and K+and helps adjust blood pressure and blood volume.
• It also promotes excretion of H+ in the urine to prevent acidosis in the body.
Regulation of aldosterone secretion by renin-angiotensin system.
The middle zone, Zona fasciculata, the widest of the 3 zones secretes glucocorticoids.
• Secretes cortisol (most abundant), corticosterone and cortisone.
• It regulates metabolism by promoting protein breakdown, gluconeogenisis and lipolysis.
• Provides resistance to stress by promoting gluconeogenesis and providing ATPas a source of
energy against stress, exercise, fasting, temperature extremes, high altitude, bleeding,
infection, surgery, trauma and diseases.
• High doses of glucocorticoids are helpful in treating chronic inflammation such as
rheumatoid arthritis.
• These hormones also inhibit inflammatory responses of WBC’s, and thus retard tissue
repair and slow down wound healing.
• They depress immune responses and so used during organ transplant so as to retard tissue
rejection by immune system.
Negative feedback regulation of Glucocorticoid hormone
• High level of CRH from hypothalamusand low level of
glucocorticoid (cortisol) promotes the release of ACTH
from anterior pituitary. This stimulates secretion of gluco
-corticoids from adrenal cortex.
Androgens :- Secreted by Zona reticularis. (Include testosterone and estrogen).
• Secreted as a weak androgen in both males and females.
• Major androgen is dehydroepiandrosterone(DHEA).
• More amounts are produced during the stage of puberty, large amounts are secreted by testes
(converted to testosterone)
• Functions :-
• Stimulate the growth of axillary and pubic hair.
• Contributes to prepubertal growth.
• Promotes libido and in females they are converted to estrogens by other body tissues.
• Also after menopause all estrogen is derived from this conversion.
• ACTH controls its secretion.
• Plays a role in erythropoesis.
Adrenal medulla :-
• The hormone producing cells of adrenal medulla, called chromaffin cells, secrete
Epinephrine(adrenaline) -80%, and norepinephrine(noradrenaline)- 20%.

• During stress, the hypothalamus stimulates sympathetic preganglionic neurons which in turn
stimulate the chromaffin cells to secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine and so intensifies

the effect of sympathetic nervous system during fight and flight.

Disorders of Adrenal Gland
• Cushing’s syndrome :- Due to hypersecretion of cortisol by adrenal cortex, characterised by
breakdown of muscle protein and redistribution of body fat resulting in spindle arms and
legs, rounded moon face, buffalo hump, pendulous(hanging) abdomen.
• Addison’s disease :- Due to hyposecretion of glucocorticoids and aldosterone.
• It is an autoimmune disease in which antibodies cause adrenal cortex destruction or block
binding of ACTH to its receptors.
• Symptoms :- Mental lethargy, anorexia, nausea, weight loss, hypoglycemia, muscular
• Stretch marks on arms, abdomen, thighs, thinning skin that bruises easily.
• Acne, fatigue and muscle weakness.
• Loss of aldosterone leads to increased levels of potassium and decreased levels of sodium in
blood and thus low B.P.
• Pheochromocytomas :- are benign tumors of chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla which
results in hypersecretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine.
• Symptoms :-
• Prolonged fight and flight response.
• Increased heart rate , high B.P.
• High levels of glucose in blood and urine.
• Elevated BMR.
• Sweating, decreased GI motility.
• Pancreas is both an endocrine and exocrine gland.
• It measures bout 12.5-15cm in length, and consists of a head, body and tail. It is located in the
curve of duodenum.
• 99% of the exocrine cells of pancreas are arranged in clusters called acini (make 99% of
pancreatic cells. They secrete digestive juices.
• Clusters of endocrine cells called pancreatic islets (islets of langerhans) are present in
between the acini (1%) secrete hormones.
• Each pancreatic islet has following 4 type of cells
• Alpha or A-cells (17%) secrete glucagon.
• Beta or B cells (70%) secrete insulin.
• Delta or D-cells(7%) secrette somatostatin.
• F cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
Insulin :- Reduces blood glucose level by :-
• Accelerating the transport of glucose into the cells.
• Fast conversion of glucose into glycogen (glycogenesis).
• Slows down the conversion of glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis) and to slow down the
formation of glucose from lactic acid and amino acids (gluconeogenesis).
• Increases lipogenesis. Stimulates protein synthesis.

Control of secretion :-
• Increased blood level of glucose, glucagon, GIP (gastric inhibitory polypeptide), HGH,
ACTH , arginine and leucine.
• Acetylcholine stimulates secretion of insulin and somatostatin inhibits it.
• Low blood glucose level stimulates
the secretion of glucagon and high
levels stimulate the secretion of insulin.
• The level of blood glucose controls the
secretion of glucagon and insulin via
negative feedback.
Glucagon :- Raises the blood glucose levels by :
• Accelerating the breakdown of glycogen into glucose in liver
(glycogenolysis).
• Converts other nutrients into glucose in liver(gluconeogenesis) and
releases the glucose into blood.
Control of secretion
• Decreased blood glucose level, increased sympathetic activity and
intake of protein meals stimulation its secretion.
• Somatostatin and insulin inhibit its secretion.
Somatostatin:-
• Inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon in paracrine manner.
• Slows down the absorption of nutrients from GI.
• Inhibits the secretion of growth hormone.
• Pancreatic polypeptide:- Inhibits somatostatin secretion.
Inhibits gall bladder contraction and secretion of pancreatic digestive
enzymes.
• Diabetes Mellitus :- It is a metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia(increase in
blood sugar level) also accompanied by impairment of carbohydrate, lipid and protein
metabolism.
• Characterized by inability of pancreas to produce or use insulin thus insulin is unavailable for
• transport of glucose into the body cells.
• This results in high blood glucose level and so glucose spills over in the urine (glucosuria).
• Polyuria – excessive urine production.
• Polydipsia- excessive thirst.
• Polyphagia – excessive eating.
Levels of B/d Fasting After eating 2-3 hrs after
glucose eating
Normal 80-100 170-200 120-140
Impaired 101-125 190-230 140-160
glucose
Diabetes 126+ 220-300 200+
Types of Diabetes mellitus
• Type I diabetes mellitus(juvenile diabetes) is characterized by destruction of β cells caused
by an autoimmune process, usually leading to complete insulin deficiency.
• Type I diabetic patients require insulin therapy to maintain normal levels of glucose.
• Type II diabetes mellitus(formerly called as non insulin dependent DM) is the most common
form of diabetes.
• It is caused by a combination of genetic factors related to impaired insulin secretion and
insulin resistance and enviromental factors such as obesity, overeating, lack of exercise, stress
and age.
Gestational Diabetes
• This develops during pregnancy and may disappear after delivery, but it often recurs in later
life.
• Raised plasma glucose levels during pregnancy predispose to the birth of heavier than
normal and stillborn babies, and deaths shortly after birth.
Hormones of the Gonads :-
• Gonads produce gametes, sperms in males and oocytes in females.
• The female gonads, ovaries are paired oval bodies located in the female pelvic cavity
produces steroidal hormones like estrogen, progestrone relaxin and inhibin.
• The male gonads, testes, are oval glands that lie in the scrotum, produce mainly testosterone.
• Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis

• Release of hormones from testes and ovaries

is governed by the hypothalamic-pituitary-
gonadal axis.

• As levels of testosterone and estrogen fall,

GnRH is released from the hypothalamus
into the hypothalamic pituitary circulation.

• GnRh stimulates secretion of FSH and LH

from the anterior pituitary into the systemic
circulation.
Ovarian hormones :-
• Estrogen :- Stimulates the growth, development and maintenance of female reproductive
structures.
• Stimulates the development of secondary sexual characters.
• Stimulates protein synthesis.
• Progesterone :- Prepares the endometrium for implantation and prepares the mammary
glands for milk production.
• Relaxin :- Helps dilate the uterine cervix to facilitate delivery.
• Inhibin :- Inhibits secretion of FSH from anterior pituitary.

Testicular Hormones :-
Main hormone secreted by testes is Testosterone, the male sex hormone.
It stimulates descent of testes before birth.
Regulates the production of sperms.
Stimulates the development and maintenance of male secondary sexual characters such as
beard
Growth and deepening of voice.
Pineal gland :-
• It is a small gland located medially between the two cerebral hemispheres and is attached to
the roof of the third ventricle by a pineal stalk.
• An adult pineal gland is a tiny brown structure, about 5-8mm long, weighs around 150gm.
• It is highly vascularised, present outside the BBB.
• Consists of secretory cells called pinealocytes and neuroglia.
• The pineal gland secretes melatonin, an amine hormone derived from serotonin.
• It is responsible for regulating the sleep and wakefulness cycles(biological rhythms).
• During sleep, plasma levels of melatonin increases and then decline to a low level again
before awakening
• Melatonin also is a potent antioxidant that may provides an effective scavenging against
free radicals.
Biosynthesis of melatonin :-
Pinealocytes take up the essential amino acid tryptophan, which is enzymatically converted into
the neurotransmitter serotonin and then into melatonin.

L-tryptophan 5-hydroxytryptophan

N-acetyl
serotonin Serotonin

Melatonin
Thymus gland :-
• It is a small delicate bilobed gland located behind the sternum and present within the
mediastinum(between the lungs) resting on the superior part of heart.
• It is a primary lymphatic organ having both immune and endocrine functions, and produces
hormones required for normal immune function – Thymosin, Thymulin, Thymopoietin.

Role of Thymic hormones :-

• They facilitate the development and maturation of T cells(thymus derived lymphocytes) in
the thymic follicles.
• It trains the white blood cells to recognize the foreign cells and differentiate them from the
body cells.
• Thymosin assists in development of B cells to plasma cells to produce antibodies.
• They are used therapeutically to treat many infections, malignancies and certain autoimmune
diseases.