Life Sciences

Key Points
June 2025
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SCIENTIFIC
INVESTIGATION
S
 Teach Planning is done before the investigation
learners: starts.

Planning and method is not the same.

PLANNIN Planning and controlled variables are the

same.
G
Planning steps must be full sentences, not
just words.

Planning includes verbs such as ensure,

decide, ask, recruit, choose, select, train.
• Functions of DNA:
• DNA makes up genes which carry hereditary information
• DNA contains coded information for protein synthesis

• Rol of DNA in transcription

• One string of a DNA -molecule act as a template on which a
complimentary mRNA is formed that carries the coded message for
proteinsynthesis
Differences between DNA and RNA
2.2.5
• Structural differences DNA RNA
Sugar is deoxyribose  Sugar is ribose 
Pairing of bases  No pairing of bases 
Has weak hydrogen bond  No weak hydrogen bond 
Long chain  Short chain 
Double-stranded molecule  Single-stranded molecule 
Nitrogen base thymine  / ATCG Nitrogen base uracil  / AUGC
Any 2 x 2 = 4 marks Table + 1
• Differences in monomers
DNA RNA
Deoxyribose sugar Ribose sugar
Nitrogenous basis Thymine Nitrogenous basic Uracil
DNA Replication – What we must
know !!!!

•  When in the cell cycle it takes place

•  Where in the cell it takes place
•  How DNA replication takes place (names of enzymes not required)
•  The significance of DNA replication
•
DNA replication- there is a
specific way and sequence in
answering
• The double helix DNA unwinds
• Unzip/hydrogen bonds between the two strands break
• To form two separate strands
• Both DNA strands serve as template
• To build a complementary DNA/ ( A=T, G=C)
• Using free DNA nucleotides
• Results in to two identical DNA molecules
Transcription – look at the key
words
• The double helix DNA unwinds.
• The double-stranded DNA unzips/weak hydrogen bonds break to form
two separate strands.
• One strand is used as a template
• to form mRNA
• using free RNA nucleotides from the nucleoplasm.
• The mRNA is complementary to the DNA.
• mRNA now has the coded message for protein synthesis
Translation
• Each tRNA carries a specific amino acid.
• When the anticodon on the tRNA
• matches the codon on the mRNA
• then tRNA brings the required amino acid to the ribosome.
• (Names of specific codons, anticodons and their amino acids are not
to be memorised.)
• Amino acids become attached to each other by peptide bonds
• to form the required protein
 Nucleic acids : DNA

1. Label X, Y ,W, V
1. Why is this a DNA – molecule
2. Label X,Y and Z
3. What is the natural shape -
1.4 1.4.1 DNA

1.4.2 (a) Hydrogen bond 

(b) Cytosine/C
(c) Thymine/T

1.4.3 Nucleotide

1.4.4 Nucleus NB
Mitochondria
DIAGRAMS OF PROTEINSYNTHESIS
2.2 Insulin is a protein. The diagram below shows the process of how insulin is made.

2.2 2.2.1 (a) tRNA / transfer RNA (1)

(b) translation  (1)

2.2.2  double strand of DNA unwinds 

 when hydrogen bonds break the two strands separate / unzips
 one strand is used as a template  to form mRNA
 called transcription 
 using free RNA nucleotides from the nucleoplasm
 the mRNA is complementary to the DNA 
Any 5 marks (5)

2.2.3 28 + 28 = 56 
100 – 56 = 44 
44 ÷ 2  = 22 % 
(3)
Any 2 marks for workings + 1 mark for correct answer

2.2.4 - The sequence of nitrogen bases on DNA will change. 

 This would cause a corresponding change on mRna / codons.
2.2.1 Name the following:  A different amino acid will be brought in by tRNA  to match the
changed codon
(a) Molecule X (1)  This will lead to a change in the sequence of amino acids in the
polypeptide chain
(b) Process B (1)  Therefore a different protein will form,  / ineffective protein.
Any 4 marks (4)
2.2.2 Describe Process A. (5)
2.2.5
2.2.3 A sample of DNA was analysed and 28% of the nucleotides contain thymine. DNA RNA
Calculate the percentage of nucleotides which contain cytosine. Show your Sugar is deoxyribose  Sugar is ribose 
working. (3) Pairing of bases  No pairing of bases 
Has weak hydrogen bond  No weak hydrogen bond 
2.2.4 Describe how a DNA mutation will affect the structure of the protein Long chain  Short chain 
formed. (4) Double-stranded molecule  Single-stranded molecule 
Nitrogen base thymine  / ATCG Nitrogen base uracil  / AUGC
2.2.5 Tabulate TWO differences between DNA and RNA. (5)
Any 2 x 2 = 4 marks Table + 1 (5)
1. 3
2. ATG
3. It codes for the specific Sequens for
amino acids to form a specific protein

4a) AUC

4b) The tRNA carries the anticodon that

pick up a specific amino acid and brings it
to the ribosome in a specific sequence to
from the require protein .
1. Carries the genetic code
Carries the code for protein

2. ACA

3. TGC- ACG = Threonine

ACA- UGU = Cysteine

4.
The base triplet on DNA change from ATG to ATA
The Codon on the mRNA will change from UAC to UAU
The same amino acid will bind - Tyrosine
The sequence of amino acids will not change
Therefore, the same protein will form/ no change in the protein

5. In the exam guidelines

DNA basis/ Codon/Anticodon /Amino
acids/Mutations
Haemoglobin is a protein found in blood that carries oxygen to all the cells of the body. A portion of this
protein is called a beta chain. If the sequence of amino acids in this chain changes, then a different form of
haemoglobin, called haemoglobin S, is formed. Haemoglobin S cannot transport oxygen as efficiently as
normal haemoglobin.
Give the:
DNA base triplet for amino acid 3
mRNA codon for amino acid 4 -

What is a change in the sequence of DNA base triplets

called? –

Use the information in the tables to explain how a change

in the sequence of the DNA base triplets results in the
formation of haemoglobin S, rather than normal
haemoglobin.
-
DNA basis/ Codon/Anticodon /Amino
acids/Mutations
Haemoglobin is a protein found in blood that carries oxygen to all the cells of the body. A portion of this
protein is called a beta chain. If the sequence of amino acids in this chain changes, then a different form of
haemoglobin, called haemoglobin S, is formed. Haemoglobin S cannot transport oxygen as efficiently as
normal haemoglobin.
Give the:
DNA base triplet for amino acid 3 - GAC
mRNA codon for amino acid 4 - ACU

What is a change in the sequence of DNA base triplets

called? – Gene mutation

Use the information in the tables to explain how a change

in the sequence of the DNA base triplets results in the
formation of haemoglobin S, rather than normal
haemoglobin.
-The DNA base triplet change from CTC to CAC
Therefore, because there is no indication of mRNA we go to the amino acids
-The Amino acid sequence change
-because a different amino acid bind VAL instead of GLU
-A a new/ different protein will be formed.
DNA profiling
2.1
2.1.1
DNA profiling

2.1.2
Jennie

2.1.3
- All of the DNA profile bands/bars on Jennie DNA profile
- match the DNA profile bands/Bars from the DNA sample from
the crime scene

2.1.4
- Proof of paternity
- Tracing missing persons
- Identification of genetic disorders
- Establishing family relations
- Matching tissues for organ transplants
- Identifying dead persons
 Meiosis- 21
• The events of the following phases of Meiosis 1 and 2, using
diagrams:
•  Prophase
•  Metaphase
•  Anaphase
•  Telophase
•
Meiosis
• The importance of meiosis:
• Production of haploid gametes
The halving effect of meiosis overcomes the doubling effect of
fertilisation, thus maintaining a constant chromosome number from
one generation to the next

• Introduce genetic variation – Crossing over

- random arrangement of chromosomes
 Meiosis and Genetic
variation
Crossing over
• occurs during prophase I 
• Homologous chromosomes 
• non-sister – chromatids/adjacent chromotids overlap 
• at points called chiasma /chiasmata
• Genetic material is exchanged 
• resulting in new combinations of genetic material  from both parents
The random arrangement of chromosomes at the equator
• Homologues chromosomes arrange randomly om the equator
• This result into genetic different gametes
What must you know of chromosomes
•  Chromosomes consist of DNA (which makes up genes) and protein
•  The number of chromosomes in a cell is a characteristic of an
organism (e.g., humans have 46 chromosomes) It can be haploid or
diploid (Know the difference)
•  Chromosomes which are single threads become double (two
chromatids joined by a centromere) as a result of DNA replication

Daughter chromosome/Chromosome
Chromosomes/ Sister chromatid /
Daughter chromosome
Differentiate between
What must you know
of Homologous
chromosomes
• - Shape – NOT SAME STRUCTURE
• - Size/length
• - Position of genes/alleles
• - Genes coding for same characteristic
• - Location of centromere
 Meiosis
BEHAVIOUR OF THE CHROMOSOMES DURING THE DIFFERENT PHASES OF
MEIOSIS I
- During prophase I
- chromosomes pair up/homologous pairs /bivalents form
- Crossing over exchange of genetic material occurs
- between chromatids/adjacent chromosome pairs
- During metaphase I of meiosis
- homologous chromosomes metaphase I/chromosome in metaphase 2 are arranged
- at the equator of the cell in pair
- in a random way
- with the chromosome attached to the spindle fibre
- During anaphase I
- chromosome pairs separate (I)/chromatids (II) move to opposite poles
- During telophase I
- the chromosomes/ daughter chromosomes reach the poles of the cell
Meiosis- Labels and Functions
1 Anaphase 2 2 Metaphase 2 3 Anaphase 1

A Chromatid B centromere C Homologous chromosome

D Centriole E Crossing over

2.3 The diagram below shows a cell during a phase of meiosis.

2.3 2.3.1 (a) centriole

A
(b) homologous chromosomes  / bivalent

2.3.2 Metaphase I 
B
A
2.3.3 Homologous chromosomes present
Homologous Chromosomes are lined at the equator 

2.3.4 Because homologous / paired chromosomes present 

2.3.1 Give labels for:
2.3.5 2 / Two 
(a) A

(b) B
Homologous chromosomes arrange in pairs on
2.3.2 Identify the phase in the diagram.
the equator. Not homologous pairs arrange on
2.3.3 Give a reason for your answer to QUESTION 2.3.2. the equator
2.3.4 Explain why this is a diploid cell.

2.3.5 How many chromosomes will there be in each of the gametes produced by this
cell?
NBNBNBNBNBNBNB
 Nucleic acids : DNA and RNA

Name the phases 1 -3

1- Metaphase 1
2- Anaphase 1
3 – Telophase 1

Label A to E

A- Cell membrane
B_ Chromatid
Difference between Anaphase 1 C- Spindle fibres
and 2 D- Centriole
E - Cytoplasma
Chromosomes are pull to the poles

Chromatids are pull to the poles

Non- disjunction In Humans or
any organisme
• When chromosome pair 21/chromosome
21 fails to separate
• during Anaphase
• the daughter cells (gametes) will have 24
chromosomes/ an extra chromosome
• When this gamete is fertilised by a
normal gamete with 23 chromosomes
• the zygote will have 47 chromosomes/3
chromosomes at position 21/
• Trisomy 21 / Down Syndrome
Genetics
GENETICS AND INHERITANCE
Paper 2: 72 MARKS P 2 JUNE !!!!!!!!!!!!
Biological terms in Genetics
• Chromatin and chromosomes
• Genes and alleles
• Phenotype and genotype
• Dominant and recessive alleles
• Homozygous (pure breeding) and heterozygous (hybrid)
• Monohybrid cross and dihybrid cross
The relationships between:
Chromosomes- DNA – GENE -
GENOME
 Genome vs karyotype
• The mapping of the exact • The number, shape and
• position of all the genes in all • arrangement of all the
• the chromosomes of a human. • chromosomes in the nucleus of
• a somatic cell.
Example: Gene number 3 on
chromosome number 4 is
responsible for a particular
characteristic.
 Do not forget about
• Multiple alleles
More than two alternative forms of a gene at the same locus

Example: Blood groups are controlled by three allelesi.

Autosomes VS Gonosomes
 Types of Dominance New definition in
exam guidelines

• 1. Complete dominance – one allele is dominant and the other is recessive,

such that the effect of the recessive allele is masked by the dominant allele
in the heterozygous condition
2. Co-dominance – both alleles of a gene are equally
dominant whereby both alleles express themselves
in the phenotype in the heterozygous condition
3. Incomplete dominance – neither one of the two alleles of a gene is dominant over the other,
resulting in an intermediate phenotype in the heterozygous condition
Key point Q. Paper 2- Genetics
• Format for representing a genetics cross
•
Dihybrid crossing

TtBb/TTBB/ttBb

NOT TBtB

TTBB

Gametes of Ttbb

Tb Tb tb tb
 Different Laws
This is poorly answer
and understand
by all learners
• The Law of Dominance-
When two homozygous organisms with contrasting characteristics are crossed, all the individuals of the F1 generation
will display the dominant trait
An individual that is heterozygous for a particular characteristic will have the dominant trait as the phenotype .

• Mendel's Principle of Segregation-

an organism possesses two 'factors' which separate or segregate so that each gamete contains only one of
these 'factors'

• Mendel's Principle of Independent Assortment –

The various 'factors' controlling the different characteristics are separate entities, not influencing each other in
any way, and sorting themselves out independently during gamete formation
 Do not forget about
• Multiple alleles
More than two alternative forms of a gene at the same locus

Example: Blood groups are controlled by three allelesi.

Three babies (S, T and U) from three different sets of parents were born in a
hospital. TWO of the babies were accidentally swopped. Blood groups of the
parents were used to establish which baby belonged to which set of parents.

The blood groups of the parents and the babies are shown in the table below.

BLOOD GROUPS OF
BABIES PARENTS AND BABIES
Mother Father Baby
Mr and Mrs Khumalo S B A A
Mr and Mrs Molefe T AB B O
Mr and Mrs Dube U O B AB

2.5.1 Which TWO babies (from S, T and U) were swopped?

2.5.2 Give the possible genotype(s) of Mr Khumalo that could have

produced baby S.

2.5.1 T and U

2.5.2 IAIA
IAi
(Any order)
How sex is determined in humans
2.4 Haemophilia is a sex-linked disorder that causes excessive bleeding due to a
lack of the blood clotting protein. The recessive allele responsible for this
disorder is represented by Xh.

2.4.1 Show by means of a genetic cross the possible genotypes and

phenotypes of the parents and children if a man suffering from
haemophilia and a woman who is a carrier of this disorder decide to
have children.

2.4.2 Explain why this disorder affects mostly males in a family.

 Interpretation of pedigree diagrams

Step 1: Study any key and opening statement/s and look for dominant and
recessive characteristics and phenotypes.
Step 2: Write in the phenotypes of all the individuals as given in the problem.
Step 3: Fill in the genotype of all the individuals with the recessive condition it
must have two recessive alleles (two lower case letters, e.g. bb)
Step 4: For every individual in the diagram that has the recessive condition, it
means that each allele was obtained from each of the parents. Work backwards
and fill in one recessive allele for each parent
Step 5: If the parents showed the dominant characteristic, fill in the second letter
which represents the dominant allele (a capital letter, e.g. B).
The genotype of Peter is ‘Bb’ – working backwards from the offspring
Marlena or Jack or John who are homozygous recessive. This means that
one of the recessive alleles of Marlena, Jack and John, i.e. ‘b’, must have
come from parent Peter and the other one from parent Veronica
Step 6: Any other individual showing the dominant characteristic will most
likely be homozygous dominant (BB) or heterozygous dominant (Bb).
Ronel could be homozygous dominant (BB) or heterozygous dominant (Bb)
 1. Why is this a sex- link disorder
Pedigree diagram
The recessive alle is carried on the x-
XtY
chromosome of the gonosome

XXTTXX tt
Give the:
X T X t / XTXT (a) Phenotype of Peter
(b) Possible genotype(s) of Happy

Identify the female member in the diagram above

XtY who is a definite heterozygous.

XtY Give the percentage of unaffected males in the

XTY diagram above.
X T X t / XTXT
Explain why Lucky’s condition cannot be used as
evidence that John is his father.
Hunter syndrome is a sex-linked .The diagram
below shows the inheritance of a Hunter
syndrome in a family
1 Give the gonosome of Ann
XX

2. How many males are effected

2
Nucleic acids : DNA and RNA
 Sex – link disorders
WHY FEMALES HAVE A SMALLER CHANCE OF
SUFFERING FROM HAEMOPHILIA
- Haemophilia is caused by a recessive allele
- Carried on the X chromosome
- Females have two X chromosomes/ Males only have
one X chromosome
- Females must inherit two copies of the recessive allele
females who inherit only one of the recessive alleles are WHY ARE THERE MORE MALES THAN FEMALES
still non-haemophiliac WITH COLOUR-BLINDNESS
- Males only have one X-chromosome
- If this chromosome carries the recessive allele/Xb
- the male will be colour-blind
- the Y-chromosome in males, does not carry any allele to
mask the effect of the colour-
blind allele
- Females have 2 X-chromosomes
- They need to have two recessive alleles/Xb Xb to be
affected
- A dominant allele on the other X-chromosome will mask
the effect of the recessive
trait.
 Mutations

• Definition -Sudden change in the genetic composition of an organise

in the genetic composition of an organism

• Gene Mutation – a change in the sequence of nitrogenous bases or

nucleotides of DNA

• Chromosomal mutation – a change in the normal structure or number

of chromosomes
Genetic engineering - Biotechnology
Cloning – brief outline of process

Why do we remove the Why do we remove the

nucleus of the donor cell nucleus of the Finn-
Dorset sheep
The nucleus of the
donor cell is haploid
The nucleus of the Finn
Dorset sheep is diploid
The nucleus have all the
genes.

Why does Dolly not look like

the Scottich blackface sheep
Dolly have the genetic make-
up of the Finn-Dorset sheap
Key point Q. Paper 2- Genetics
• Genetic engineering