Chapter 8:

The appendicular
skeleton
Appendicular skeleton
 126 bones

 Allows us to move and manipulate objects.

 Includes all bones beside axial skeleton

◦ The limbs

◦ The supportive girdles.

Pectoral girdle/shoulder
girdle
Include

◦ The clavicle
◦ The scapula
Pectoral girdle

The clavicles
◦ S-shaped bone

◦ Originate
 Superior, lateral border of manubrium of the

sternum (sternal end)

 Lateral to the jugular notch

 Articulate with the scapulae (acromial end)

Pectoral girdle

The clavicles

◦ Acromial end
 A rough inferior surface

 Prominent lines and tubercles

 Attachment sites for muscles and ligaments

of shoulder.

◦ Connection between clavicles and

sternum = sternoclavicular joints
Pectoral girdle
The scapulae

◦ Triangle shaped

◦ Three sides of the triangle

 Superior border

 Medial border (vertebral)

 Lateral border (axillary)

 Muscles that position the scapula attach along these edges.

◦ Subscapular fossa – depression in the anterior

Pectoral girdle
The scapulae

◦ Corners of the triangle

 Superior angle

 Inferior angle

 Lateral angle

◦ Glenoid cavity
 cup shaped

 Articulates with humerus (glenohumeral joint)

Pectoral girdle

The scapulae

◦ Caracoid process

◦ Acromion process

◦ Scapular spine
 Supraspinous fossa

 Infraspinous fossa
Upper limbs
Consist of
◦ Arms (humerus)
◦ Forearms (ulna and radius)
◦ Wrists (8 carpals)
◦ Hands (metacarpals & phalanges)
Upper Limbs
The humerus
◦ Also called the arm
◦ The long, upper arm bone
◦ Articulates with the pectoral

girdle
Upper Limbs
The humerus (proximal anterior end)
◦ Separated by the intertubercular groove
◦ Greater tubercle
 Lateral
 Forms tip of shoulder

◦ Lesser tubercle
 Anterior, medial
Upper Limbs
The humerus (proximal anterior end)
◦ Head
 Rounded, articulating surface

 Contained within joint capsule

◦ Anatomical neck
 Margin of joint capsule

◦ Surgical neck
 The narrow metaphysis
Upper Limbs
The humerus
◦ The shaft
 Deltoid tuberosity
 A bulge in the shaft
 Attaches deltoid muscle

 Radial groove
 For radial nerve
 Posterior to deltoid tuberosity
Upper Limbs
The humerus (distal anterior
epiphysis)
 Medial and lateral epicondyles
 For muscle attachment
 Condyle of the humerus
 Articulates with ulna and radius
Upper Limbs
The humerus (distal anterior
epiphysis)
◦ Articular regions of the condyle
 Capitulum
 Radial fossa
 Articulates with radius
Upper Limbs
The humerus (distal posterior
epiphysis)
◦ Articular regions of the condyle
 Trochlea
 Coronoid fossa and olecranon fossa
 Articulates with ulna
The elbow joint
The elbow joint
 The Upper Limbs
 The Forearm
◦ Also called the antebrachium
◦ Consists of two long bones
1. Ulna (medial)
2. Radius (lateral)
Upper Limbs
The Ulna
◦ The olecranon
 Superior end of ulna
 Point of elbow
 Superior lip of trochlear notch
 Articulates with trochlea of humerus

◦ The coronoid process

 Inferior lip of trochlear notch
Upper Limbs

The Ulna
◦ Articulations with the humerus
 Forearm extended
 Olecranon enters olecranon fossa
 Forearm flexed
 Coronoid process enters coronoid fossa
Upper Limbs
The Ulna
◦ Other articulations
 Radial notch
 Articulates with head of radius
 Forms proximal radio-ulnar joint
 Ulnar head
 Prominent styloid process
 Attaches to articular disc between forearm
and wrist
Upper Limbs
The Ulna
◦ Interosseous membrane
 A fibrous sheet
 Connects lateral margin of ulnar shaft to
radius
Upper Limbs
 The Radius
◦ Lateral bone of forearm
◦ Disk-shaped radial head above the neck
◦ Radial tuberosity below the neck, attaches biceps
◦ Articulations of the radius
 Ulnar notch
 Distal end
 Articulates with wrist and radius
 Styloid process
 Stabilizes wrist joint
Upper Limbs
Eight Carpal Bones
◦ Four proximal carpal bones
◦ Four distal carpal bones
◦ Allow wrist to bend and twist

Five metacarpals
Phalanges
Carpal tunnel syndrome
 Ligaments

◦ interconnect the carpal bones and

◦ help stabilize the wrist joints.
 Tendons of muscles that flex the fingers
◦ pass across the anterior surface of the wrist,
◦ sandwiched between the intercarpal ligaments
and flexor retinaculum.
 Carpal tunnel syndrome
◦ Inflammation of the connective tissue between
the flexor retinaculum and the carpal bones
can compress the tendons and the adjacent
median nerve
The Pelvic Girdle
Coxal Bones
◦ The acetabulum
 Also called the hip socket
 Is the meeting point of the ilium, ischium, and
pubis
 Is on the lateral surface of the hip bone (coxal
bone)
 Articulates with head of the femur (lunate
surface)
◦ Acetabular notch
 A gap in the ridge of the margins of the
The Pelvic Girdle
Marks of the Ilium
◦ Greater sciatic notch
 For sciatic nerve

◦ Iliac crest
 Upper brim

◦ Iliac fossa
 Depression between iliac crest and arcuate
line
The Pelvic Girdle
Marks of the Ischium
◦ Ischial spine
 Above lesser sciatic notch
◦ Ischial tuberosity
 Posterior projection you sit on
◦ Ischial ramus
 Meets inferior ramus of pubis
◦ Superior ramus
 Meets pubic tubercle
The Pelvic Girdle
Marks of the Pubis
◦ Pubic symphysis
 Gap between pubic tubercles
 Padded with fibrocartilage
◦ Obturator foramen
 Formed by ischial and pubic rami
 Attaches hip muscles
The Pelvic Girdle
Marks of the Pubis
◦ Pectineal line
 Ridge of superior ramus of pubis
 Continues to iliac crest as arcuate line
(both of the ilia)
The Pelvic Girdle
 Coxal Bones
◦ Articulations of the pelvic girdle
 Sacroiliac joint
 Articulation of posterior auricular surface of ilium
 With the sacrum
 Stabilized by ligaments of iliac tuberosity
 The Pelvis
◦ Consists of two coxal bones, the sacrum, and the
coccyx
◦ Stabilized by ligaments of pelvic girdle, sacrum, and
lumbar vertebrae
The Pelvic Girdle
Divisions of the Pelvis
◦ True pelvis
 Encloses pelvic cavity
 Pelvic brim
 Upper edge of true pelvis
 Encloses pelvic inlet
 Perineum region
 Inferior edges of true pelvis
 Forms pelvic outlet
 Perineal muscles support organs of pelvic cavity
The Pelvic Girdle
Divisions of the Pelvis
◦ False pelvis
 Blades of ilium above arcuate line
The Pelvic Girdle
 Comparing the Male Pelvis and Female Pelvis
◦ Female pelvis
 Smoother and lighter
 Less prominent muscle and ligament attachments
 Pelvis modifications for childbearing
 Enlarged pelvic outlet
 Broad pubic angle (>100°)
 Less curvature of sacrum and coccyx
 Wide, circular pelvic inlet
 Broad, low pelvis
 Ilia project laterally, not upwards
The Lower Limbs
Functions of the Lower Limbs
◦ Weight bearing
◦ Motion
◦ Note: leg = lower leg; thigh = upper leg
The Lower Limbs
Bones of the Lower Limbs
◦ Femur (thigh)
◦ Patella (kneecap)
◦ Tibia and fibula (leg)
◦ Tarsals (ankle)
◦ Metatarsals (foot)
◦ Phalanges (toes)
The Lower Limbs
The Femur
◦ The proximal epiphysis
 Femoral head
 Articulates with pelvis at acetabulum
 Attaches at fovea capitis

 The neck
 Narrow area between head and trochanters
 Joins shaft at angle
The Lower Limbs
The Femur
◦ The proximal epiphysis
 Trochanters
 Greater trochanter and
lesser trochanter
 Tendon attachments

 Intertrochanteric line
(anterior) and
intertrochanteric crest
(posterior)
 Mark edge of articular capsule
The Lower Limbs
The Femur
◦ The shaft
 Linea aspera
 Most prominent ridge of shaft
 Attaches hip muscles
 Joins epicondyles
The Lower Limbs
The Femur
◦ The distal epiphysis
 Medial epicondyle and lateral epicondyle
 Above the knee joint
 Medial condyle and lateral condyle
 Separated by intercondylar fossa and
patellar surface
 Form part of knee joint
The Lower Limbs
The Patella
◦ Also called the kneecap
◦ A sesamoid bone
◦ Formed within tendon of quadriceps
femoris
◦ Base attaches quadriceps femoris
◦ Apex attaches patellar ligament
The Lower Limbs
The Tibia
◦ Also called the shinbone
◦ Supports body weight
◦ Larger than fibula
◦ Medial to fibula
The Lower Limbs
The Tibia
◦ The proximal epiphysis
 Medial and lateral tibial condyles
 Separated by intercondylar eminence
 Articulate with medial and lateral condyles of femur

 Tibial tuberosity
 Attaches patellar ligament
The Lower Limbs
The Tibia
◦ The shaft
 Anterior margin
 Sharp ridge of shinbone

◦ The distal epiphysis

 Medial malleolus
 Medial projection at the ankle
The Lower Limbs
The Fibula
◦ Attaches muscles of feet and toes
◦ Smaller than tibia
◦ Lateral to tibia
The Lower Limbs
The Fibula
◦ Articulations with tibia
 Fibula/tibia articulations
 Head
 Inferior tibiofibular joint
 Interosseous membrane
 Binds fibula to tibia
 Lateral malleolus
 Lateral projection of ankle
The Lower Limbs
The Ankle
◦ Also called the tarsus
 Consists of seven tarsal bones
◦ Bones of the ankle
 Talus
 Carries weight from tibia across trochlea
 Calcaneus (heel bone)
 Transfers weight from talus to ground
 Attaches calcaneal (Achilles) tendon
 Cuboid
 Articulates with calcaneus
The Lower Limbs
The Ankle
◦ Bones of the ankle
 Navicular
 Articulates with talus and three cuneiform bones

 Medial cuneiform
 Intermediate cuneiform
 Lateral cuneiform
The Lower Limbs
Metatarsal Bones of the Foot
◦ Five long bones of foot
◦ Numbered I–V, medial to lateral
◦ Articulate with toes
The Lower Limbs
Phalanges of the Foot
◦ Phalanges
 14 bones of the toes

◦ Hallux
 Big toe or great toe, two phalanges (distal,
proximal)

◦ Other four toes

 Three phalanges (distal, medial, proximal)
The Lower Limbs
Arches of the Feet
◦ Arches transfer weight from one part of
the foot to another
◦ The longitudinal arch
 Calcaneal portion
 Lateral
 Talar portion
 Medial

◦ The transverse arch

 Formed by a difference in curvature between
medial and lateral borders of the foot
Individual Skeleton Variation
Studying the Skeleton
◦ Reveals characteristics
 Muscle strength and mass (bone ridges, bone
mass)
 Medical history (condition of teeth, healed
fractures)
 Sex and age (bone measurements and fusion)
 Body size
 Sex Differences in the Human
Skeleton
Region and Feature Male (compared to Female (compared to
female) male)
SKULL
General appearance Heavier, rougher Lighter, smoother

Forehead More sloping More vertical

Sinuses Larger Smaller

Cranium About 10% larger About 10% smaller

Mandible Larger, more robust Smaller, lighter

Teeth Larger Smaller

Sex Differences in the Human Skeleton
Region and Feature Male (compared to female) Female (compared to male)

PELVIS

General appearance Narrower, more robust, Broader, lighter, smoother

rougher
Pelvic inlet Heart shaped Oval to round shaped
Iliac fossa Deeper Shallower
Ilium More vertical; extends farther Less vertical; less extension
superior to sacroiliac joint superior
Angle inferior to pubic Under 90° 100° or more (Figure 8–10)
symphysis
Acetabulum Directed laterally Faces slightly anteriorly as
well as laterally
Obturator foramen Oval Triangular
Ischial spine Points medially Points posteriorly
Sacrum Long, narrow triangle with Broad, short triangle with
pronounced sacral curvature less curvature
Coccyx Points anteriorly Points inferiorly
Sex Differences in the Human
Skeleton
Region and Feature Male (compared to Female (compared to
female) male)
OTHER SKELETAL
ELEMENTS
Bone weight Heavier Lighter

Bone markings More prominent Less prominent

Age-Related Changes in the Skeleton
Region and Events Age in Years
Feature
GENERAL
SKELETON
Bony matrix Reduction in mineral Begins at age 30–45;
content; increased risk values differ for males
of versus females between
osteoporosis ages 45 and 65; similar
reductions occur in both
sexes after age 65
Bone markings Reduction in size, Gradual reduction with
roughness increasing age and
decreasing muscular
strength and mass
 Age-Related Changes in the
Skeleton
Region and Feature Events Age in Years

SKULL
Fontanelles Closure Completed by age 2
Frontal suture Fusion 2–8
Occipital bone Fusion of ossification 1–4
centers
Styloid process Fusion with temporal bone 12–16
Hyoid bone Complete ossification and 25–30
fusion
Teeth Loss of “baby teeth”; Detailed in Chapter 24
appearance of secondary (digestive system)
dentition; eruption of
permanent molars
Mandible Loss of teeth; reduction in Accelerates in later
bone mass; change in angle years (60)
at mandibular notch
Age-Related Changes in the Skeleton

Region and Feature Events Age in Years

VERTEBRAE
Curvature Development of 3 months–10 years
major curves
Intervertebral discs Reduction in size, Accelerates in later years
percentage contribution (60)
to height
Age-Related Changes in the Skeleton

Region and Feature Events Age in Years

LONG BONES
Epiphyseal Fusion Begins about age 3; ranges vary,
cartilages but general analysis permits
determination of approximate age

PECTORAL AND
PELVIC GIRDLES
Epiphyses Fusion Relatively narrow ranges of ages
(e.g., 14–16, 16–18, 22–25)
increase accuracy of age
estimates