1.

8
The Requirements for Product Design and Development
 Specific Criteria and fitness for purpose:
Definition:
The development of a design specification that requires a clear set of testable criteria based on appropriate research that will allow the final product to be
assessed
Examples:
Stuart Pugh:
• A highly influential design engineer and founder of the term 'total design', refers to the PDS as the key document that is used throughout all subsequent design
activities
• He devised a wide range of sub-subsections that a PDS must address known as Pugh's plates
• The list includes:
 Environment: Consider the impact of the product on the environment during production, use and disposal/reuse
 Testing: Consider how each part of the product will be tested and the measurements that will mean success
 Safety: Consider all relevant safety standards and legislation
 Product life span: Consider how long the product should last before replacement is necessary
 Materials: Consider the key material properties required for each component within the product
 Ergonomics: Consider how the product will be interacted with, and how the design will assist the ease of use for the client/user
 Aesthetics: Consider any appearance characteristics of the shape and form to meet the client requirements
 Performance: Consider how well the design must function in comparison to existing solutions
 Product cost: Consider all the cost restrictions upon the design regarding materials, manufacturing and labour costs, etc
 Time scale: Consider the project deadline
 Size and weight: Consider all size and weight restrictions on the product, including relevant anthropometric data
 Maintenance: Consider how the product will be maintained and whether this is in the consumable parts and how these will be replaced/changed
 Product development and improvement: Critical assessment for new design development
• When developing a product a criteria is used to ensure that products are • Design in constantly evolving, David Pye states that everything we design
assessed against their own specification as certain designs maybe more and make is an improvisation, a lash-up, something inept and provisional
aesthetically based but others focus more on functionality, so it isn't a fair
comparison when deciding if it is a 'good design' • In this quote, Pye is referring to the fact that designers must assess and
Examples: improve upon what has come before to avoid making the same mistakes
Citroen 2CV (By Andre Lefebvre and Flaminio Bertoni): • Designers must be willing to accept that they will never fully solve a
problem, but can only find a temporary solution that, with current
• Their PDS was 'to carry 4 people and 50kg of potatoes or keg at a maximum technology and knowledge, can help addresses the specification they were
of 60k.p.h with a consumption of 3 litres of petrol per 100km'
given
• The car successfully achieved all the specification points set for it, therefore
it is categorised as a 'good design’ • By critically assessing current products, customer feedback can be given and
be used to help develop further products

Critical Analysis:
Designers and manufacturers evaluate current products to help them develop new ideas or improvements for products, to do this they carry out various analyses:
• Product analysis: An effective product analysis can only be completed on a product that you actually have so that you can analyse it accurately
• Function (perceived): A task analysis is carried out which involves using the product and assessing if it is successful in performing the desired tasks
• Task Analysis: Breaks down a specific task into stages to see if the product if suited to performing this task and if any improvements can be made
• Ergonomics: Considers how the user interacts with the product
• Aesthetics: The aim of the designer is considered when factual statements about the appearance and influences from movements of the product are made
• Materials: The importance of material choice are assessed based on properties, suitability to style of manufacture and influences aesthetically or mechanically
• Manufacture/Process: The manufacture of each component should be assessed as well as the assembly of the product and the order it is done in
• Scale of Production: The number of products produced impacts the materials and manufacture used, the suitability of each process should be considered
• Environmental impact: the evaluation includes assessing what happens to the product at the end of its life
 Critical Analysis: User-centred design Critical Analysis: Task analysis
Definition: Definition:
All products we design should be focused around the user and they should be Monitoring potential users of a product performing specific tasks with that
involved at all stages of the design process to guide the product’s product
development.
• When performing a product analysis, it is useful to perform a task analysis
• Product concepts and models must be tested in real world situations with
potential users • This can be done with existing solutions to problems to identify issues or
with working prototypes to fix any issues during the development process
• This is important because the designers opinion of how the product should
be used may be different to the users opinion
• The customer should not be forced unnecessarily to change how they
perform a task to accommodate a new product

Concept Modelling: Initial concept generation:

• During the design process, it is essential to model design ideas/concepts • Initial 2D or 3D sketch modelling can be used to gain feedback from clients
prior to investment in physical prototypes
• This can be done in a wide variety of ways using a nearly endless number of
materials • These sketches serve a clear purpose early in the design process: however,
the feedback from a client in mainly restricted to comments on the
• The selection of an appropriate modelling method is crucial and this form/aesthetics
selection is depends on the purpose of the model
• All modelling is done to help make decision's or prove/disprove predictions
 Block Modelling: Visual Appearance Models:
• After sketch modelling, designers may • Visual appearance models are used to demonstrate the aesthetic from and
progress into block modelling concepts appearance of the design concepts
to prove theories on mechanisms or
show ergonomic features of design in a • The model is not usually made from the same materials as the final product
physical form because it will be a one-off product so investment in complex moulding
equipment would add unnecessary expense
• The use of lightweight compliant
materials such as Styrofoam allows
simple shaping of 3D forms using hand
tools, but when moving parts are
required, more resistant materials may
need to be included to test reactions to
forces

Working Prototypes: Rapid Prototyping:

• Working Prototypes are used to test mechanisms and technical principles • Due to the increased availability of rapid prototyping technology, these 3D
block models are often created from 3D CAD models, which can be printed
• They don’t often resemble the final product aesthetically and may be in a wide range of thermosetting polymers and resins
constructed from a range of materials and components, the mechanisms
can be adjusted with temporary fixing to finalise dimensions and • These CAD models can be tested prior to
movements the printing of the model and once
saved, can be replicated several times
following feedback
• This gives a range of replications for the
same product in a fraction of the time
required to produce the same number
of hand-made replications
 Accuracy of production Shape and form Proportion
• Concepts in design development must be • This refers to 2D and 3D physical appearance of a Definition:
suitable for production product
The relationship of size between different elements
• The use of simple geometric forms within • Shape of a product refers to a 2D profile such as width and height
design can increase the ease of • Positions of key features like controls or elements
manufacture • Form of a product refers to a 3D object
can also be seen as proportional
• Reducing complexity in machining and • Geometric shapes and forms enable modern
designs to develop producible and functional • Aesthetics of a product are effected by
helping to produce the accurate proportions used in its design
repeatable products by hand or machine products when studying design movements
• The ‘Golden Ratio’ is often considered, it is a term
• Standard geometric forms are not always • Lines and curves at a point helps to produce referring to a ratio of 1:1.61803398875 units,
critical but they are easier produce minimal and aesthetically pleasing forms without when constructing a rectangle, which can gives
accurately distracting blemishes on surfaces pleasing proportions

• Fully dimensional drawings is important to • This proportion is used a lot in architecture and
ensure components can be combined art and design
effectively
Symmetry and asymmetry
• Dimensional accuracy must be in line with
production facilities available • Symmetry in design for handheld products aimed at left and right handed user
• When producing components within a • It adds visual balance to a product
workshop, using CAD helps to improves • Asymmetry adds interest to a design and can be used to focus attention on aspects of a design
accuracy
• When machinery used to produce the Aesthetics, ergonomics and anthropometrics
component, the process can not be
replicated exactly unlike CAD Definition:
Features of a product that make it visually appealing. Appearance can be affected by shape or form, size and
proportion, colour and texture
• Aesthetics and function is key to commercial success of products but is complicated as it is a subjective area
 Anthropomorphism Colour and texture:
Definition: • The use of colour within product design is important in the aesthetic
appeal of the product
The use of anthropism within product design refers to the design of products
that reflect proportions associated with the human body and face • When designing combine colour, they use a variety of selection processes.
Examples: Two main techniques:
• Combining colour from opposing sides of
Anna G’s Corkscrew
the colour wheel (These colours are known
• Anthropomorphism within design development is used to provide an as complimentary)
emotional connection with the product, the association of character with • Combining colours that are next to each
the playful corkscrew adds fun to a mundane task other on the colour wheel (this is known as
• The facial expression perceived by the character adds personality to the an analogous colour combination)
product
Coca-Cola bottle design in 1915: Symbols and ideograms:
• This can be seen in the design of the Anna G corkscrew by Alessandro • The use of instructive symbols in growing as it becomes more important to
Mendini and in a subtler approach with the Coca-Cola bottle of 1915., appeal to a more diverse global market
which differed vastly from bottle design at the time
• Designers must ensure that they avoid language barriers within the use of
products
• The use of standardisation within symbol design also means that children
will have more chance of understanding the product
• Colour associations are also used to help someone
understand the nature of product
E.g. red generally indicates stop/danger/warning/
heat/ a warning and green generally indicates
go/environmentally friendly
• Combining colours gives an even greater range of
associations such as yellow and black indicates a warning
 Design considerations for control interfaces:
Definition:
Where a person operates a particular piece of equipment that could instruct the device or system to do what they desire, and the item being controlled
could respond accordingly
When designing control interfaces the following should be considered:
• Users should not have to move unnecessarily to reach any controls
• All controls should easy to grip to reduce the strain put on joints from bending fingers and hands
This may be done through making the grip bigger, the addition of elastomer over mouldings or in mould texture application
• Controls should be easy to access and operate
This means that although creating flash surfaces improves aesthetics, users may not be able to locate the controls in the dark
• The pressure required for operation of controls must also be considered and optimise for the task and user
• Varying shapes and sizes of controls means the identification can be made by touch
• Large, clear labels of a contrasting colour to the background or easier to see
• Tactile markings need to be easy to locate to guide partially sighted and blind people
• Important information should be shown in different ways; where are possible, a variety of sounds, symbols, lines and textures should be used
Examples:
Cars:
• Many cars use a control interface or control panel to control the stereo of the car which includes the volume of the car and a pause and play
button where the driver is easily able to click the buttons without unnecessary movement and disturbances to their driving
 Ergonomics: Anthropometrics:
Definition: Definition:
The scientific study of people and their working conditions The use of body measurements to determine the optimum size for
products for comfortable and efficient use
• When considering the ergonomics of a product, situation or environment, we must
consider how we interact with it using all our senses. • The designer’s aim is to achieve as good an anthropometric
match for as many potential consumers as possible
Examples:
• British Standards Institute (BSI) provide data charts relating to
Scissors: measurements for men, women and children. The data
The largest pair are designed for performing long cuts through fabric, gathered for the human body such as height, weight, shoe size,
and, due to this they have longer blades. Furthermore, the handles arm length, grip strength, and head circumference is gathered
are angled to allow the user to rest the scissors on a flat surface and and is often presented in graphical format.
therefore prevent undue movement of the wrist during cutting. Examples of arthrometric data include:
The smaller pair of scissors is designed for removing strands of a • How far people can reach
woven material and performing intricate cuts, where the user will
hold the material in their hands. The blades are small to reduce • How much space people need
weight. As there is no support, the handles are symmetrical around
the central axis. • How much force they can exert
• Height of a person
What to consider the ergonomics of the design:
• Length of arms/legs
• Range of sizes possible (anthropometric data)
Examples:
• Range of differing abilities displayed by possible users concerning all senses)
Designing a chair:
• Movements and forces used in relation to the product
• The design of the chair should be able to suit the average sitting
• Shape and form height, shoulder height, etc of the general population
• Appropriate colour scheme and symbols Arthrometric data is highly thought of
when designing an office chair as it can accommodate a range of users, such as
adjusting the height. This product is mainly focused on functionality and its ability to
keep the consumer comfortable for long periods of time.
 Scissors:
Inclusive Design:
• The handle has been shaped for right-handed use
Definition:
• The smooth finish rigid polymer for the handle improves the grip due to the adding
The design of products that are accessible to, and usable by, as texture or an elastomer over moulding on contacting surfaces
many people as reasonably possible without the need for
special adaption
• The thermal insulation properties of the polymer mean that the scissors will not react
to changes in environmental temperature, which may cause discomfort when using
• Age, gender and disability all need to be considered the product in cold conditions

• User Centred Design (UCD) is a term that can apply to any Hand tools:
design tailored to users that meet their needs and is
intuitive to use which is used with inclusive design Precision grip:
• The precision grip is used for small intricate movements where the force
• Designers can find it extremely difficult to design for users applied is small, so weaker finger muscles are utilised.
with different abilities to themselves without
the opportunity to empathise with the target user • The tool is held between the thumbs and index finger.

• Within the idea of empathic design, the designer is • You use this grip with pencils, paintbrushes and scalpels.
encouraged to take part in task analysis whilst
• The ideal diameter for a precision grip is 8-16 mm, although the shape may vary
matching possible restrictions faced by the user
depending on the use and direction of force
Examples:
Power grip:
Ford Focus: • The power grip is used when a large force is required; the hand wraps around the handle and force comes from
• While developing the Ford Focus, Ford utilised a ‘third age the forearm.
suit’ allowing designers to experience the prototype from • This is used with screwdrivers, hammers and also utility knives.
the view of an older user who may have mobility issues.
• The ideal diameter for a power girl is 30-50 mm, although the shapes may vary depending on the use and
• The suit has been designed to restrict movement in joints, direction of force.
reduce the user’s ability to grip objects and
also to simulate visual impairment, giving designers the • The use of ridges or indentations in hand tool design can improve grip, which is especially useful for screwdrivers
opportunity to empathise with specific age-
related disabilities • This improved grip can also be achieved with the inclusion of a TPE over moulding. As the length of hand tools is
generally fixed, designers use average measurements to ensure that they are more inclusive.
• Hand tool design requires a clear understanding of
inclusive design​ • The use of indented finger grips avoided here because they can be too prescriptive and uncomfortable for users
with small or large hands
• Bad design can cause undue stress on joints and cause the
user to work slower, or even stop the task all together​ • To accommodate the widest range of users, gentle curves are used giving multiple gripping positions for the user