WEEK

1
SECONDARY
School: CHSVGC
Term: Third Term
Session: 2024/2025
Subject: PHYSICS
Class: YEAR 11
Period: 2
 WEEK
1
SCHEME OF
Week Space physics WORK
Week 6 Magnetic field
1 (IGCSE/WASSCE) II-(WAEC/IGCSE).

Week Radioactivity – (WAEC/IGCSE). Week 7 MID-TERM BREAK

2

Week Structure of the atom II(WAEC). Week 8 Electromagnetic field I

3

Week Electrical Conduction through Week 9 Electromagnetic field II

4 materials [Electronic]

Week Week Revision

5 Magnetic field I-(WAEC/IGCSE). 10
 DURATION WEEK
1
WEEK 1
Period 1: 50 Min

Period 2: 50 min

Period 3: 50 min

Period 4: 50 min
 WEEK
TOPIC:
1
SUB-TOPIC:
Period 1: Explain the concept of space Physics Period 2: Earth and the solar
system
StarsPeriod 3: The universe
Period 4: The satellites

4
 WEEK
1
KEY VOCABULARIES
Sun
Planets
Moons
Solar wind
Black hole
 WEEK
1

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS:

Th sun and the

solar systems
 WEEK
1

THE BIG QUESTION:

What is the nature of dark
matter and dark energy
 WEEK
1
PRIOR LEARNING:

Circular motion and

centripetal force
 WEEK
1

ENQUIRY QUESTIONS:
How did the universe originate and
evolve?
 WEEK
CONTENT ( WE DO):
1
PERIOD 2:

Solar system
it is Collection of celestial objects that orbit around our star, the sun.

Main Components:
1. the sun: the centreof the solar system, a massive ball of hot,
glowing gas.
2. Planets : Eight planets orbit the sun, including Mecury, Venus Earth.
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Naptune.
3. Dwarf planets: Smaller, rocky objects that orbit the sun, like pluto
4. Moons: Natural satellite that orbits planets
 Component Contd
5. Astroids: Small rocky objects that orbits the sun
6. Comet: Icy bodies that release gas and dust as
they approach the sun.
7. Kuiper Belt objects: Small, icy bodies beyond
Neptune’s orbit
 Characteristics
1 Gravitational binding: The solar system
is held together by gravity
2. Orbital Motion: Objects in the solar
system follow elliptical orbits around the sun
3. Diverse Environments: Each planet and
moon has unique conditions, such as
temperature, atmosphere and geology.
The solar system is also
home to smaller objects
called Asteroids, Comets,
Meteoroids etc.
The four smaller inner
planets: Mercury, Venus,
Earth and Mars are called
terrestrial planets.
 Kepler’s Laws

•Kepler’s laws of planetary

motion describe the orbits of
objects about the sun. The
laws are stated as follows:
 Law 1: The planets each travel
along an ellipse with the sun as one
focus
Law 2: The line joining the sun and
the planets sweeps out equal areas
in equal times.
Law 3: The square of the period of
revolution of the planets are
proportional to the cubes of their
mean distances from the sun (T2α
x3)
SATELLITES:
A satellite is any object
that moves round the
earth or any body in space.
TYPES OF SATELLITES:
 Natural satellite and
 Artificial satellite
 A natural satellite or moon is
a celestial body that orbits a
planet or smaller body.
The moon shinning in the
night over the earth is an
example of a natural satellite
• Artificial satellites are man-
made or human built objects
orbiting the earth and other
planets in the solar system.
They are useful in
communications and to study
other planets. The first artificial
satellite (Sputnik 1)was
launched in 1957 by the Soviet
Union.
 WEEK
1
TEACHER’S ACTIVITIES ( I DO ):
Evaluate Example Questions in Complete Physics
for Secondary Schools by Stephen Popple

Example 12.3 page 28

 WEEK
1
RELEVANT REFERENCES:
• New School Physics by Anyakoha
• New Complete Physics for IGSCE
by Stephen Pople
• Internet
 WEEK
MULTIMEDIA LINKS/E-RESOURCES: 1

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rcDXQ-5H8mk
 WEEK
2
SCHEME OF
Week Space physics WORK
Week 6 Magnetic field
1 (IGCSE/WASSCE) II-(WAEC/IGCSE).

Week Radioactivity – (WAEC/IGCSE). Week 7 MID-TERM BREAK

2

Week Structure of the atom II(WAEC). Week 8 Electromagnetic field I

3

Week Electrical Conduction through Week 9 Electromagnetic field II

4 materials [Electronic]

Week Week Revision

5 Magnetic field I-(WAEC/IGCSE). 10
 DURATION WEEK
2
WEEK 2
Period 1: 50 Min

Period 2: 50 min

Period 3: 50 min

Period 4: 50 min
 ......:
T3 WK
1
Radioactivity 2 of ……

Radioactivity is the spontaneous decay or

disintegration of the nucleus of an
element during which it emits alpha(α),
beta(ß) -particles and gamma (‫ ) ﻻ‬rays
or a combination of any or all the three
and energy(heat).
 Types of radiation
Alpha () – a high
speed helium nucleus
is emitted (2 protons &
Unstable New Alpha
nucleus nucleus particle 2 neutrons).
Beta () – the fast
moving, high energy
electron is called a
Beta beta particle.
particle
Gamma (g) – after  or
Unstable New
nucleus nucleus  decay surplus energy
is sometimes emitted.
Gamma radiation is a
wave with very high
Unstable New Gamma
frequency with short
nucleus nucleus radiation wavelength.
 Properties of alpha particles.
• Alpha particles;
• They are positively charged
• They are deflected at a very slow rate towards a negative
plate of an electric field
• They have the highest ionization energy
• They are massive (since they are deflected slowly).
• They are stopped by thin paper and air
 α-emission
• Emission of an α-particle (He24) decreases the atomic no.
by 2 and the mass no by 4.
• E.g.
• 238
92 U 4
2 He + 234
90 Th + energy rays)
 Properties of beta
particles
• Beta particle;
• They have lower momentum compared to alpha
particle
• They are streams of high speed electrons
• They are negatively charged.
• They have lower ionization energy compared to
alpha particles
• They are deflected towards the positive plate on
an electric field.
 β emission
• When a β particle is emitted the mass no. stays the same
(since the mass of an electron is very small) and the
atomic no. increases by one (as an extra proton is created
with the β particle.
 Properties of gamma rays
• .
• They are electromagnetic in nature
• They travel at the speed of light
• They have negligible ionization energy
• Have the highest penetrating power
• They have no charge
• They are not deflected by electric field.
 Activity
• The activity (A) of a radioactive sample is the no. of nuclei
of the substance decaying per second
• Measured in becquerels (Bq)
 Ionisation
Ionisation occurs when an
atom loses one or more of its
electrons.
The atom becomes a positive
ion. Lithium
atom
Alpha particles cause intense (uncharge
ionisation due to their large
mass double positive charge. d)
Beta particles cause moderate
ionisation. Lithium ion
Gamma rays only cause weak (positively
ionisation because they are
uncharged. charged)
 Deflection by magnetic fields
Alpha and beta particles are
deflected in opposite
directions due to their

S
opposite charges.
Due to their much larger
mass alpha particles are
deflected far less than beta.
Gamma rays are not
Magnetic south deflected because they are
not charged.
pole placed
behind the rays
 Deflection by electric fields
- - - Alpha and beta particles are
deflected in opposite
directions due to their
opposite charges.
Due to their much larger
mass alpha particles are
deflected far less than beta.
Gamma rays are not
+ + +
deflected because they are
Electric field produced by not charged.
positively and negatively charged
plates
 Detection of Radiation
• Counters
• Geiger Counter – Radiation causes a gas to emit electrons
causing a voltage which makes the counter “click”
• Scintillation counter – uses a solid, liquid, or gas
scintillator – a material which is excited by radiation to
emit light. The light is captured and amplified by a
Photomultiplier (PM) tube – which turns it into an electric
signal.
• Semi-conductor detector – uses a p-n junction diode which
produces a short electric pulse when irradiated
 Detection of Radiation
• Trackers
• Photographic emulsion – the particle passing through the
emulsion ionizes atoms in its path
• Cloud chamber – a gas is cooled to a temperature slightly
below its normal condensation temperature hence it condenses
on any ionized molecule present this “tracks” the particle
• Bubble chamber – a liquid is kept close to its boiling
temperature and hence “bubbles” around any ionized particle –
the bubbles are then left in the wake of the particle and
photographed
 Geiger-Müller tube

Counter

Thin mica window to

Positive allow the radiation to
anode enter the system
Negative
cathode
 ......:
T3 WK
1
NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY 8 of ……

NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY: This is the

spontaneous disintegration of the nucleus of an atom
during which alpha, beta and gamma rays and heat are
released. For example, if radium undergoes alpha
emission, we have:
88Ra 2He + 86 Rn + energy
226 4 222

Equations of the emission of beta rays.

A
Z X (a-o)
z-(-1) Y + o
-1e

222
86 Ra 2(o-1e) + 22288Ra + energy
 ......:
T3 WK
1
Artificial radioactivity: 9 of ……

Artificial radioactivity: This is a process by

which an ordinary material not normally
radioactive is made radioactive by
bombarding it with radioactive particles
like alpha particles, neutron, proton etc.
9
4 Be + 4
2 He 12
6 C + 1
0n + energy rays)
59
27 Co + 1
0 n 60
27Co + energy
 Class work
Complete the decay equations below:

59 59 0
(a Fe +
Co -1 β -

) 2 2
6 7
224 220 4
(b Ra Rn + α
) 8 8 2
8 6
16 16 0
(c N O + β
-

) 7 8 -1
 ......:
10 of
T3 WK
1
Radioisotopes: ……

Radioisotopes: These are isotopes that

are made artificially by bombarding
elements with neutrons or protons or
deuterons. Such artificially produced
isotopes are unstable and decay with
emission of alpha particles, beta
particles and gamma rays.
 ......:
T3 WK
1
Uses of radioisotopes 1 of ……

Uses of radioisotopes
i. They are used in medicines as radiotherapy
ii. They are used in industry to study defects in metal
and welded joints
iii. They are used in agriculture as radioactive tracers
and preservatives
(iv) They are used in geological research for radio dating
(v) Smoke detectors.
 Half Life

• The half life of a radioactive material is the amount of

time required for ½ of the sample to decay into another
element or isotope.
• Or the time taken for the sample to decay into half its
original quantity.
• Half lives are calculated according to the equation:
N = N0(½)x
 Half Life

• N = amount of material left at any time

• N0 = amount of material that you begin with
• x = the number of half lives that have passed since you have begun
counting
• x = t/ t1/2
• Where t = time for decay and t1/2 = half life.
• This type of decay is said to be exponential since it can be
described graphically as a hyperbola
Alta Physics
 Decay constant λ
•
 Examples.
1. Carbon-14, a radioactive isotope of carbon,
has a half life of 5730 years. If a 20 gram
sample of carbon-14 is allowed to decay for
10,000 years, how much remains at the end of
this period?
2. A substance has a half-life of 3minutes. After 6
minutes the count rate was observed to be
400. what was its count rate at zero time?
3. 16g of radioactive element was isolated and
stored. It was discovered that after 40 days,
1g of the element remain undecayed.
Calculate the half-life of the element.

Alta Physics
 ......:
T3 WK
1
Health hazards of radioactive materials 6 of ……

i. They can cause genetic changes in the body

ii. Radiation from radioactive substances can
destroy cells in tissues
iii. The ionising properties of alpha particles can
damage the skin.
iv. Radiation could cause cancer or undesirable
hereditary effects.
Radiations can kill a person as a result of this, workers
in radiological stations should be shielded with
thick blocks of lead, iron or cement.
 ......:
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1
Application of radioactivity 7 of ……

i. Agriculture and scientific

research
ii. Medical field for sterilization
iii. Industrial fields for studying
of crystals
iv. In archaeology, for carbon
dating
 Nuclear Reactions
• Mass defect – is the amount of mass that is
converted to energy during fission or fusion.
• Calculation of Mass defect is the difference
between the actual mass of the atom and the
known mass of each of its parts
• The amount of energy that this mass is converted
into is called the binding energy
 Nuclear fission.
• This is the splitting up the nucleus of a heavy element
into two approximate equal parts with the release of a
huge amount of energy and neutrons.
• Fission was first shown by Enrico Fermi, in 1934. his
experiment shows that heavy Uranium- 235 can be split
into two other elements
• Krypton and Barium, by bombarding it with a slow
neutron.

• 1
0 n+ 235
92 U 141
56 Ba + 92
36 Kr + 310 n + Energy.
• It was found that the mass of the products is less than the
mass of the original Uranium.
 Nuclear Fusion
• Fusion reactions take lighter nuclei, often an
isotope of hydrogen called deuterium and fuse
them together to make a heavier nuclei, often
helium
• This must occur at high energy and is very
difficult to produce under laboratory conditions
• Currently no workable fusion reactor has been
produced on earth
• The sun and stars all produce energy due to
nuclear fusion
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T3 WK
1
Advantages of fusion over fission 1 of ……

Advantages of fusion over fission

i. Fusion is more easily achieved with
lightest element such as hydrogen.
ii. The main material for fusion are more
cheaply and readily available.
iii. Fusion process produces less dangerous (non
radioactive) products.
iv. Large amount of energy are produced.
 ......:
T3 WK
1
Limitations of nuclear fusion 2 of ……

 The energy used to overcome the

force of repulsion of the nuclei of the
element involved is much more than
the energy released
 The cost of production of energy in
fusion is much more expensive and
takes a longer time compared to
fission
 • 1. nuclear power plant; many nuclear power
Peaceful useused
plants are being oftoday
nuclear
to generateenergy.
cheap
electricity.
• 2. In the medical field; several fission products
are used for radiotherapy.
• 3. Radioisotopes from nuclear plants are used in
agriculture as radioactive tracers and
preservatives.
• 4. some spacecrafts, ships and submarines are
powered by nuclear energy.
 Assignment.
• 1. Explain Nigeria nuclear programme.
 WEEK
3
SCHEME OF
Week Space physics WORK
Week 6 Magnetic field
1 (IGCSE/WASSCE) II-(WAEC/IGCSE).

Week Radioactivity – (WAEC/IGCSE). Week 7 MID-TERM BREAK

2

Week Structure of the atom II(WAEC). Week 8 Electromagnetic field I

3

Week Electrical Conduction through Week 9 Electromagnetic field II

4 materials [Electronic]

Week Week Revision

5 Magnetic field I-(WAEC/IGCSE). 10
 DURATION WEEK
3
WEEK 3
Period 1: 40 Min

Period 2: 40 min

Period 3: 40 min

Period 4: 40 min
Atomic Structure/Model of Atom
•
.........:
T1 WK
8
Topic : MODELS OF THE ATOM
OBJECTIVES:- At the end of the lesson,
the students should be able to
(1).state the various models of an Point: Rutherford Model
atom.
(2).State their limitations.

Point : Bohr Model

Point Electron-Cloud Model.:

Point : Concept and limitations of these

models

HO
ME
.........:
T1 WK
8
Topic : MODELS OF THE ATOM

John Dalton is generally credited

as the father of atomic theory. He
viewed the atom as an
indestructible tiny hard spheres.
This was later proved to be wrong.
As time went by, many scientist
gave account of the structure of
the atom.
HO
ME
.........:
T1 WK
8
Topic : MODELS OF THE ATOM

1. THOMSON MODEL

Thomson proposed an
atomic model which visualize
the atom as a homogeneous
sphere of positive charge
inside of which are embedded
negatively charged electrons.
HO
ME
........:
T1 WK
8
Topic : MODELS OF THE ATOM

J.J Thomson also

determined the ratio of
the charge to mass, e/m
of electron and found
e/m to be identical for all
cathode ray particles.
HO
ME
........:
T1 WK
8
Topic : MODELS OF THE ATOM
2. RUTHERFORD MODEL

This is also called the planetary or

nuclear model. Rutherford
visualized the atom as consisting of
a positively charged heavy core
called the nucleus, around which
negatively charged electrons circle
in orbits such as planets move
around the sun HO
ME
........:
T1 WK
8
Topic : MODELS OF THE ATOM
Limitations of Rutherford’s model

1. It predicts that light of a

continuous range of frequency will
be emitted from atom whereas
experiment shows line spectra.
2. It predicts that atom are
unstable, that electrons quickly
spiral into the nucleus.
HO
ME
........:
T1 WK
8
Topic : MODELS OF THE ATOM

3. BOHR’S MODEL
Neil’s Bohr suggested a model of the
atom in which:
(i) The electron move around the nucleus
in certain specific circular orbits ( called
energy levels) for which the angular
momentum is quantized (i.e. have only
discrete values). These possible states
are called stationary states

HO
ME
........:
T1 WK
8
Topic : MODELS OF THE ATOM

(ii) The electron in such a state can

emit no radiation, but if an electron
jumps from one energy state to a
lower state, it emits a photon of
light whose energy equals the
difference in energy between the
two states.
i.e E2- E1 = hf
HO
ME
h = planck’s constant
f = frequency of light
emitted
E2 = upper energy level
E1 = lower energy level
(iii) the angular momentum, L
of the atomic electron is
quantized by the rule
L = n (h/2π), where n =
1,2,3-------,the integer is called
quantum numbers. The main
limitation of the model is that
it could not explain the spectra
from multi electron atom
 4.ELECTRON CLOUD MODEL

• This model visualized the atom as

consisting of a tiny nucleus with the
electron being in rapid motion within a
relatively large region around the
nucleus but spending most of its time in
certain high probability regions.
The electron cloud is dense in region of high
electron probability and more diffuse in regions
of low probability.
Most of the time, but not always, the electron will
be located inside the spherical outline. In other
words , the probability of finding the electron
inside the spherical boundary is high. This
probability decreases as the distance of the thin
shell from the nucleus increases.
............
T1 WK
Topic : ENERGY
9
QUANTIZATION
OBJECTIVES:- At the end of the lesson,
the students should be able to
Point: Atomic Energy Levels-ground
(1). Define related terms.
state
(2). Draw and determine energy levels.
(3).List Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
(4).List examples of wave and particle Point : excited state
nature of matter.
(5). State the uncertainty principle.

Point : Einstein photographic equation

Point : Atomic Spectra,

HO
ME
........:
T1 WK
Topic : ENERGY
7
QUANTIZATION
Point: Wave Nature & Particle Nature of
Matter,

Point : Duality nature, Uncertainty

Principle

Point :

Point :

HO
ME
.........:
T1 WK
Topic : ENERGY
7
QUANTIZATION
Energy Levels in the Atom: The electrons in an
atom move around shells or orbits known as
energy levels. The electron is held in its orbit by
the force of attraction between it and the
nucleus.
Electrons in the orbit closest to the nucleus have
the highest energy because a great deal of
energy would be required to remove them from
the attractive force of the nucleus.

HO
ME
 Topic : ENERGY
..........:
T1 WK
7
QUANTIZATION
Such electrons in the closest orbit to the
nucleus are said to be in the ground state
or lowest level energy. Horizontal lines
are usually drawn to represent energy
levels. This is called energy level
diagrams. The energy states are
numbered n= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, starting from
the ground state (Eo) as n=1.

HO
ME
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Topic : ENERGY
7
QUANTIZATION
When the electron is infinitely
far from the atom or is
completely removed from the
atom, the atom is said to be
ionized.

HO
ME
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Topic : ENERGY
7
QUANTIZATION
Where En is the energy in the excited
state and Eo is the energy in the ground
state.
Example: An atom excited to an energy
level E2 (=-2.42x10-19J) falls to the
ground state Eo (-21.8x10-19J). Calculate
the frequency and the wavelength of the
emitted photon (h=6.6 x10-34J)
HO
ME
..........:
T1 WK
Topic : ENERGY
7
QUANTIZATION

E =E2-Eo=hf
-2.42x10-19 –(-21.8x10-19)=6.6x10-34
f
f= 2.94x1015 Hz
Also c= fλ
λ =c/f= 3x108/2.94x1015
λ=1.02x10-7

HO
ME
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T1 WK
Topic : ENERGY
7
QUANTIZATION
FRANCK- HERTZ EXPERIMENT
The outcome of this experiment gave
concrete proofs of the existence of energy
levels or electron shells within an atom.
Franck and hertz used mercury vapour at
very low pressure in a tube containing a
heated tungsten filament. Electrons
emitted from the filament are accelerated
through a potential difference Vab to
acquire potential energy eVab
HO
ME
The potential is now converted into
kinetic energy so that the electrons
eventually acquire a velocity V given
by ½ mv2 =eVab. They now pass
through slit into a container of gas
where they undergo inelastic
collision. The gas molecules are
excited to a higher energy state.
The figure below is the energy level diagram for mercury atoms.

To excite the mercury atom from first(ground state) to second

level requires an amount of energy
E2-E1=-5.5 ev –(-10.4 ev)=4.9 ev
To ionise the mercury atom, we require 0-(-10.4 ev)=10.4 ev.
• Example
• An electron jumps from one
energy level to another in an
atom radiating 4.5 x 10-
19
Joules. If Planck’s constant
is 6.6 x10-34Js, what is the
wavelength of the radiation?
( Take velocity of light = 3 x
108ms-1)
 Solution
E2-E1 = hf = hc/ƛ
4.5 x 10-19 = 6.6 x 10-34 x 3 x108/ƛ
ƛ = 6.6 x 10-34 x 3x 108
4.5 x 10 -19

= 4.4 x 10-7m
 LINE SPECTRUM
A gas gives off light when its atom is excited by either
heating or by sending an electrical discharge through the
gas.
This can be made by placing a high voltage across a tube
containing the gas at low pressure
When the gas atoms are
excited ,they give off light which
when analyzed is seen to consist of
a large number of spectral lines.
Each line consists of light of one
wavelength or colour. This is called
a line spectrum.
A line spectrum is a spectrum that
consists of a number of well
defined lines each having a
particular frequency or wavelength
or colour
A continuous spectrum on
the other hand, consists of
light of all colours or
wavelengths. The emission
from a material is known as
its emission spectrum.
 WAVE- PARTICLE DUALITY
The wave- particle duality refers to the idea that light and matter
have both wave and particle properties. That is light behaves
either as a wave or as a particle but not as both. Some observable
phenomenon that shows that light behaves as waves are:
1. Reflection
2. Refraction
3. Diffraction
4. Interference
5. And polarization
• Those that shows that matter behaves as
particles are:
1. Emission and absorption of light
• 2. Photo electricity
• 3. Radiation of energy from heated bodies
• 4. Thermionic emission,
• 5.Momentum e.t.c
The dual nature of matter is referred to as wave-
particle duality
 The Uncertainty Principle
Heisenberg show that it is impossible in principle to make
precise measurement of both the position (x) and
momentum (p) of a particle simultaneously. Any such
measurement have in built uncertainties Δx in the
position and Δp in the momentum.
Heisenberg showed that
Δx * Δp > h
Δx * mΔv > h
ΔE * Δt > h
ΔE, Δt, Δp and Δx are the uncertainties in the
energy, time, momentum, and position
measurements
• Example
1.The uncertainty in the position
X of an electron moving through
a cathode ray tube is 10-10 m.
What is the uncertainty in the
simultaneous measurement of
the velocity V of the electron
assuming its mass is 10-30 Kg ?
[ Assume h = 6.6 x 10-34 J s ].
• ∆x = 10-10 m ; m = 10-30 kg ; h = 6.6 x 10-34 Js;
∆v = ?
∆x . m∆v ≥ h
∆v ≥ h / m∆x
∆v ≥ 6.6 x 10-34
10-30 x 10-10
∆v ≥ 6.6 x 106 m/s
• 2. The uncertainty in the energy of a particle is
1.0 x 10-10 J. Determine its uncertainty in the time
measurement. (Planck’s constant =6.63x 10-34
Js ).
• solution. ∆E . ∆t ≥ h
• 1.0 x 10-10 . ∆t ≥ 6.63 x 10-34
• ∆t ≥ 6.63 x 10-34 ≥ 6.63 x 10-24 s
• 1.0 x 10-10
 WEEK
4
SCHEME OF
Week Space physics WORK
Week 6 Magnetic field
1 (IGCSE/WASSCE) II-(WAEC/IGCSE).

Week Radioactivity – (WAEC/IGCSE). Week 7 MID-TERM BREAK

2

Week Structure of the atom II(WAEC). Week 8 Electromagnetic field I

3

Week Electrical Conduction through Week 9 Electromagnetic field II

4 materials [Electronic]

Week Week Revision

5 Magnetic field I-(WAEC/IGCSE). 10
 Objectives.
• Students should be able to:
• Explain conduction of electricity in gases.
• Describe CRO
• Explain thermionic emission
• Explain digital electronics
• List properties of cathode rays.
• Describe and explain the production of X-rays
 ......:
T3 WK
2
ELECTRONS 5 of ……

Discharge tube
The conduction of Point: Conduction
electricity through gases
is studied using a
Point : Electrodes
discharge tube. A
discharge tube consists
of a long glass tube with
Point : Anode
metal electrodes sealed
to each end of the tube.
The vacuum pump is Point : Cathode
used to alter the
pressure of the gas.
 ......:
T3 WK
2
DISCHARGE TUBE 6 of ……
 ......:
T3 WK
CONDITIONS FOR 7 of ……
2
CONDUCTION
1. Gases conduct electricity under low
pressure and high voltage, the gas in
the tube breaks into ions. The positive
ions move towards the cathode while
the negative ions move towards the
anode. The positive ion knocks off
electrons from the metal plate of the
cathode. The electrons produced at the
cathode are called cathode rays
 ......:
T3 WK
2
Cathode Rays 8 of ……

These are beams of electrons moving

at high speed.
 ......:
T3 WK
PROPERTIES OF CATHODE 9 of ……
2
RAYS
1. They consist of streams of fast moving particles of
negative electricity called electrons.
2. They cause other materials to glow with a
greenish colour.
3. They travel in straight lines.
4. They are deflected by electric and magnetic field.
5. They can ionise a gas.
6. They have momentum and mass.
7. They can produce intense heat on objects.
8. They can affect photographic plates.
9. They can produce X-rays.
10. They are highly penetrating.
 Wavelength of a Moving
......:
10 of
T3 WK
2 ……

Electron
(de-broglie’s wavelength)
An electron of known mass moving with a certain
speed in a vacuum has a wavelength,λ given by
λ = h/p = h /mv
where λ = wavelength of the electron
P = mv = momentum of the
electron
m= mass of the electron
v= speed of the electron
h= Planck’s constant
= 6.6 x 10 -34 Js
 THERMIONIC EMISSION 1 of ……

This is the release of electrons

from the surface of a hot metal.
Whenever a metal is heated to a
sufficiently high temperature,
electrons are emitted from the
surface of the metal
 ......:
T3 WK
2
ELECTRON ENERGY 4 of ……

If an electron accelerates freely

from a cathode to an anode, it loses
potential energy all of which is
changed to kinetic energy. For an
electron charge ,e moving through
a voltage v
K.e = eV
i.e ½ mv2 = e V , where e is 1.6
x10-19C
 ......:
T3 WK
2
Question 5 of ……

In an experiment, the metre reads 100mA

and the voltage between the cathode and
anode is 500V. The electronic charge is 1.6
x 10-19C. Calculate:
(i) The K.E of an electron as it reaches the
anode
(ii) The charge reaching the anode every
second
(iii) the no of electrons reaching the anode
every second
 ......:Thermionic emission and liquid
T3 WK
2 Vaporisation 6 of ……

Similarities and differences DIFFERENCES

Between Thermionic Vaporisation takes place
emission and liquid from liquid surface while
Vaporisation thermionic emission takes
 Heat is involved in both place from the metal surface.
process. Water molecules are
 Both occur at the released in vaporisation
surface of the material while electrons are released
 The rate of both in thermionic emission.
Vaporisation occurs at a
phenomenon increases definite temperature for a
with temperature. given substance. Thermionic
 Particles are released in emission may not
both. necessarily occur at fixed
temperature.
 ......:
T3 WK
CATHODE RAY 7 of ……
2
OSCILLOSCOPE
This is an instrument used for the investigation of
currents and voltages in electronic circuits. It has
three main parts:
1. Electron gun: This is made up of (i) the heated
filament to supply electrons (ii) the cathode (iii)
the anode made positive with respect to cathode
2. Fluorescent screen
3. Deflecting system : There are two pair of
deflecting plates (i) Y- plates are horizontal but
deflects the beam vertically
(ii) x- plates are vertical but deflects the beam
horizontally.
 ......:
T3 WK
2
USES OF C R O 8 of ……

1. It is used to study alternating

current waveforms to
measure frequency and
amplitude of voltage of
electronic device.
2. it is used for measuring p.ds.
3. it is used for displaying
waveforms
 ......:
T3 WK
2
CRO 9 of ……
 ......:
T3 WK
2
Diagram of C R O 10 of
……
 X- rays.

• X-rays forms part of e/m radiation of very high frequency and very
short wavelength. X- rays are produced in x-ray tubes.
• X-rays are produced when an electron beam bombards certain
materials at a high speed. The rapid deceleration of the electrons
generates em forces which produce the radiation.
• In the tube a high voltage is applied between the hot cathode and the
anode. Electrons are accelerated to an extremely high speed, the
sudden deceleration as they strike the anode causes the emission of
high-energy radiation of short wavelength. This is in the x-ray band of
the em spectrum.
 Properties of x-rays.
• They have short wavelength
• They have high frequency
• The intensity of x-ray beam increases with current
• X-rays with short wavelengths are produced with high
voltage.
 Uses of x-rays
• They are used to detect hidden cracks in
materials
• They are used to detect alterations to works of
arts
• To show broken bones in human body
• They are used in crystallography
• They are used in the diagnosis of ulcer
• They are used in agriculture for killing germs
 Hazards of overexposure to x-rays

• It leads to genetic mutation

• Skin burns
• Leukemia
• Tissue damage
• Baldness
• Cataracts
 ......:
T3 WK
2
Example 4 of ……

An X-ray tube operates at a

potential of 2500V. If the power of
the tube is 750W, calculate the
speed of the electron and the time it
takes to strike the target.
( e = 1.6 x 10-19 C, mass of electron
= 9.1 x 10 -31 Kg
 ......:
T3 WK
2
TYPES OF X- RAYS 5 of ……

(I) Hard X-rays (ii) Soft X- rays

Hard X- rays have a high
penetrating power and a short
wavelength. Hardness is a
measure of the strength or
penetrating ability of the X- rays
 ......:
T3 WK
2
TYPES OF X- RAYS 6 of ……

Soft X- rays have a lower penetrating power

and longer wavelength.

INTENSITY OF X- RAYS: Is the energy

radiated per unit area. Intensity is governed
by the current of the hot filament.
WEEK 3. DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
OBJECTIVES:-At the end of the lesson, the students should be able
to;
i).distinguish between analog and digital system
ii).identify and name logic gates
iii).write truth table
iv).define semiconductors
v).list types of semiconductors.
 ......:
T3 WK
3
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS 1 of ……

Circuits with microchips and other

semiconductor devices are called electronic
circuits. They include the circuits in TV sets,
computers, CD players etc.
An electronic system consist of three parts.
These are:
(i) An input sensor or transducer
(ii) a processor
(iii) an output transducer
 Analog and Digital

• Analog systems process time-varying signals that

can take on any value across a continuous range of
voltages (in electrical/electronics systems).
• Digital systems process time-varying signals that
can take on only one of two discrete values of
voltages (in electrical/electronics systems).
• Discrete values are called 1 and 0 (ON and OFF, HIGH and
LOW, TRUE and FALSE, etc.)
 Input devices.
• There are large number of input devices available for different applications.
• The microphone.
• The thermocouple.
• The solar cell.
• The thermistor.
• The light-dependent resistor.
• A capacitor.
• A potentiometer.
• A switch.
• A voltage divider.
• A process device- the transistor.
Digital processes.
• A transistor has three terminal called the base,
emitter and the collector.
• A transistor can be considered as an electronic
switch with no moving parts. The switching is
controlled by the voltage applied to the emitter –
base connection. The transistor is off (non-
conducting) when the emitter – base voltage is
below a certain value. i.e electronic switch open.
The transistor is on (conducting) when the
emitter-base voltage is equal to or above that
certain value. (>= 0.7V).
 Output devices.

• There are large number of output devices available for different

applications.
• The loudspeakers.
• The electric motor.
• The relay.
• The solenoid.
• The filament lamp.
• The light- emitting diode(LED).
• The seven-segment display.
 LOGIC GATES
A logic gate is an elementary
building block of a digital
circuit.

Most logic gates have two

inputs and one output
terminals.

At any given moment, each

terminal is in one of the two
binary conditions low (0) or
high (1), represented by
different voltage levels
 AND, OR and NOT gates

• There are three main types

of logic gate

• AND
• NOT
• OR.
 Two additional types
• you also need to know about

• NAND – which is an AND + a NOT

• NOR – which is an OR + a NOT

 Logic gates
• Logic gates are at the heart of digital electronics
• Video recorders, security lamps, alarm systems, and washing machines are
just some of the things controlled by electronic switches called logic gates

• A logic gate contains a circuit with transistor switches, but

you do not need to know anything about the circuit inside

• All you need to know is how the logic gate will respond
when it gets a signal – that is, what will its output be.
 The ideas behind logic gates
1. Switches in Series

• If two on-off switches are connected in

series they must all be closed (on) to
complete the circuit and light the lamp.
• if either A or B is OFF (open), the bulb is off
• We say the output of the gate is 0

• If both A and B are ON (closed), the output is 1

The AND gate symbol
The truth table gives the results of all the possible switch
settings. It uses two logic numbers: 0 for OFF and 1 for
ON

Input A Input B Output Q

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1
 The OR gate
• If two switches are connected in parallel then only one
needs to be closed (on) to complete the circuit.
Truth table for the OR
gate
Input A Input B Output Q

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1
 The NOT gate
• This is also called an INVERTER, because whatever signal
you put in, you get the opposite signal out.

‘signals’ mean a voltage, such as:

• 5v to mean 1 (on)
• no voltage to mean 0 (off)
The NOT gate
 Combining gates –
An inverter used to reverse a an output from a gate
The AND gate is giving an output,
but the inverter is not
Nothing from the AND gate, yet the
inverter gives a signal
 A new truth table for this would be

A B C Q
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
 Tape recorder logic gate

• The following diagram shows one use for a logic gate.

• The cassette recorder will only start recording if the ‘record’ and
‘play’ buttons are pressed together.
 Alarm system
• The next diagram shows how sensors and logic gates can
be used to control a security lamp.

• The sensors and gates have been connected so that if it is

dark and someone approaches, the lamp comes on
automatically.

• The last gate cannot provide enough power for the lamp,
so it switches on a relay instead. This switches on a
separate circuit with the lamp in it.
Logic gates working together to
make an alarm system
 Checking the logic
• To check that the combination behaves as intended, you can
write a truth table for it.

• In this case, the light sensor’s output is LOW (0) in the dark

• the body heat sensor’s output is HIGH (1) if someone

approaches

• the final output Q must be HIGH for the lamp to come on.
 Assignment.

• Design a block diagram for a bank safe that needs two

keys to activate the lock. The key sensors will send an
output when the correct key is used.
• Design a logic system for street lights that come on when
it gets dark but only if there are cars on the road.
• For each one, write the truth table
 Semiconductor.
• These are materials which have an electric conductivity
intermediate in value between that of a pure metal and
that of a good insulator.
• The current in semiconductor is carried by free electrons
and holes.
 WEEK
5
SCHEME OF
Week Space physics WORK
Week 6 Magnetic field
1 (IGCSE/WASSCE) II-(WAEC/IGCSE).

Week Radioactivity – (WAEC/IGCSE). Week 7 MID-TERM BREAK

2

Week Structure of the atom II(WAEC). Week 8 Electromagnetic field I

3

Week Electrical Conduction through Week 9 Electromagnetic field II

4 materials [Electronic]

Week Week Revision

5 Magnetic field I-(WAEC/IGCSE). 10
 DURATION WEEK
5
WEEK 5
Period 1: 50 Min

Period 2: 50 min

Period 3: 50 min

Period 4: 50 min
Week 5
Magnetic field.
 Learning objectives.
• Students should be able to:
• Define a magnet
• State the properties of a magnet.
• Describe methods of making magnets.
......:
Wk4 MAGNETIC FIELD 9 of ……

A magnet is a material or object that

produces a magnetic field. This
magnetic force pulls on other
ferromagnetic materials like iron and
attracts or repels other magnets.
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
These are substances that can attract
or be attracted by magnets. Magnetic
materials are capable of being
magnetised.
 ......:
T3 WK
4
Magnetic Substances 10 of
……

Examples are: Iron, Nickel, cobalt,

steel. They are also known as
ferromagnetic substances.
Non- Magnetic Substances
These are materials that has very
feeble magnetic properties.
Examples are copper, brass, wood,
glass e.t.c
T3 WK
PROPERTIES OF A
......:
1 of ……
4
MAGNET
1. ATTRACTIVE PROPERTY: A magnet
attracts magnetic substances like iron,
steel, nickel and cobalt.
2. A freely suspended magnet always aligns
itself in the north- south
direction.
3. Poles exists in pairs: If a magnet is
broken into two parts from the middle, then
each part is found to be a magnet.
4. Magnetic property is maximum at the
poles
 ......:
T3 WK
4
LAW OF MAGNETISM 2 of ……

Like poles repel each other, unlike poles attract each

other.

Common uses of magnets

Hard disks record data on a thin magnetic coating.
Magnetic recording media:
Credit, debit, and ATM cards:
Common televisions and computer monitors:

Speakers and microphones:

Magnets can be used to make jewellery.
 ......:
T3 WK
4
MAGNETISATION 3 of
……

Magnetisation is the process by which

a magnetic material attains magnetism
temporarily or permanently.

Methods of Magnetisation
1. Single touch method
2. Double touch method
3. Electrical method of magnetisation
 ......:
T3 WK
1. SINGLE TOUCH 4 of ……
4
METHOD
The specimen to be magnetised (e.g steel) is
placed on a table. It is then stroked along its
length with one end of a bar magnet, lifting it up
when it reaches the other end.
 ......:
T3 WK
4
Topic : 5 of ……

The process is repeated several

times. At the end of the stroking
process, it will be observed that the
end A will have the same polarity as
that of the stroking pole, and the
end B an opposite polarity
T3 WK
2. DOUBLE TOUCH
......:
6 of ……
4
METHOD
In this method, each half of the specimen is
stroked repeatedly in opposite directions by
opposite poles S and N of the bar magnets .
 ......:
T3 WK
4
Topic : 7 of ……

The stroking is done outwardly

from the centre of the specimen.
At the end of the repeated
stroking, each end will have an
opposite polarity to that of the
stroking pole.
 ......:
T3 WK
4
3. ELECTRICAL METHOD 8 of ……

This is the best and quickest methods of

making magnets. The material to be
magnetised is inserted inside a long coil of
wire (solenoid).The ends of the coil are
connected to a circuit.
When the current is switched on for some
time, the material becomes a magnet. The
polarity of the magnet formed depends on
the direction of the flow of current in the
solenoid.
 ......:
T3 WK
4
MAGNETISATION 9 of ……

Notes /Picture
/Diagrams/Formulae/Class work/
Assignments
 DEMAGNETISATION

DEMAGNETISATION This is the

process of removing the
magnetic property of a magnet.
It can be achieved in the
following ways:
 ......:
T3 WK
4
DEMAGNETISATION 10 of
……

1. By rough handling
2. By heating
3. By passing
electricity
 ......:
T3 WK
4
Rough Handling 1 of ……

Hammering, hitting and dropping

of the magnet on the floor.
These will cause the magnetic
domain to lose its orientation
and the magnet loses its
magnetism.
 ......:
T3 WK
4
BY HEATING 2 of ……

When magnets are

strongly heated, they lose
their magnetism.
 ......:
T3 WK
4
ELECTRICAL METHOD 3 of
……

The magnet is placed in a solenoid

through which an a.c is flowing. The
solenoid is placed
With its axis pointing E-W direction.
The rapid reversal in direction of the
a.c causes the material to reverse in
polarity several times in a second. This
process demagnetises the magnet.
 Electromagnets
An electromagnet consists
of a current carrying coil
wrapped around an iron
core.
 ......:
T3 WK
4
Uses of Electromagnets 6 of ……

•Telephone earpiece
•Carbon microphone
•Electric bell
•Magnetic relay
•Scrapyard crane.
 ......:
T3 WK
The magnetic Properties of iron 7 of ……
4 and steel
 Iron is more easily magnetised than
steel
Iron is more easily demagnetised than
steel
Steel keeps its magnetism much
longer than iron.
Because of these differences in their
magnetic properties, iron and steel are
used for different things:
Steel is used in making permanent
magnets, such as compass needles, bar
Iron is used for making electromagnets where strong
magnetism is required for a short time.

Steel is used for magnets in vehicles where

magnetism can be lost by vibration
• Iron is used in making temporary magnets while steel is
used in making permanent magnets.
 Magnetic fields
A magnetic field is a volume of
space where magnetic force is
exerted.

All magnets are surrounded by

magnetic fields.

The shape of a magnetic field

can be shown by iron filings or
plotting compasses.
Magnetic field around a bar
magnet
magnetic field line Arrows on the field
lines show the
direction of the force
on a free to move
north pole

The stronger the

magnetic field the
denser the magnetic
field lines.
Magnetic fields between two bar
magnets
......:
WK 4 Magnetic Flux 10 of
……

This refers to the number of

magnetic lines of force in a
given magnetic field. It is a
vector quantity measured in
weber (wb).
 Magnetic Flux Density
This is the magnetic flux per unit area in a given
magnetic field. It is denoted by B, measured in
wb/m2 or Tesla, T

B = magnetic flux/area =Ф/A

Therefore, Ф = B A
 Properties Of Magnetic Lines
Of Force
 Magnetic lines of force cannot cross each other
because magnetic field moves only in one direction
 The direction of the magnetic field at a point is given
by the tangent to the line of force at one point
 The magnetic field in a bar magnet is non- uniform.
 Lines of force are straight, uniformly spaced and
parallel in a uniform field.
 Lines of force do not intersect
 Lines of force normally curve.
 Lines of force do not begin or end in the space
surrounding a charge.
 Lines of force are continuous in any region with free
charge
 Magnetic Flux Pattern
A plotting compass is used in tracing
magnetic flux pattern
The curved line
obtained by
using a plotting
compass is
called a
magnetic line of
flux.
 FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING
CONDUCTOR PLACED IN A
Parallel wires MAGNETIC
carrying current
FIELDproduce significant
magnetic fields, which in turn produce significant
forces on currents. The force felt between the
wires is used to define the standard unit of
current, known as an ampere.
The magnetic force experienced is directly
proportional to sin α, the current, I and magnetic
flux density, B

i.e F = BIL sinα

 THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC
FIELD
A compass needle always points in the
north-south direction. It must be that the
Earth itself is surrounded by a magnetic
field.

The earth behaves as though it contained

a relatively short bar magnet inside it,
inclined at a small angle to its axis of
rotation, with its south pole in the northern
hemisphere, while the north pole is in the
southern hemisphere.
 Magnetic Elements
Angle of declination: This is the angle
between the direction of magnetic North
and the direction of geographic North at a
particular point.
A compass needle pivoted so
that it swings in a horizontal
plane will point to the magnetic
north pole when allowed to
move freely. It is not the same as
geographical north pole.
 Angle of Dip or Inclination

This is the angle between the

direction of the Earth’s magnetic
flux and the horizontal.
The angle of dip at any place may
be measured with an instrument
called the dip circle.
 Magnetic force on a Moving
Charge
A charge moving in the magnetic field of a magnet experience a
magnetic force. This force is given by

F = qvB sinθ
Where q is the charge, moving with a velocity v in a field of
magnetic induction, B
The expression can also be written as

F=q vxB

v x B (vector product of v and B) is given as vB sinθ

When the angle θ between V and B is zero, the force is zero but
when θ is 90o, the force is simply

F=qvB ( since sin 90o = 1)

 EXAMPLE
An electron enters a
magnetic field of flux density
1.5 T with a speed of 2.0 x
107 ms-1 at an angle of 30o to
the field. Calculate the
magnitude of the force on
the electron (Electron
-19
 SOLUTION
Using F= q v B sin θ
F = 1.6 x10 -19
x 2.0 x 10 7
x 1.5 x sin 30o

F = 2.4 x 10-19N
 CLASSWORK
• Calculate the force on an airplane which has acquired a
net charge of 100 C and moves with a velocity of 300ms-1
perpendicular to the earth’s magnetic field of 5 x 10 -5 T
 Class work

1. Find the magnetic force experienced by an electron of

charge 1.6 x 10 -19 C projected into a magnetic field of flux
density 10T, with a velocity of 3 x 10 7 ms-1, in a direction
(i) Parallel to the field
(ii) At right angle to the field
(iii) at 30o to the field
2. A charge of 1.6 x 10-19 C enters a magnetic field of flux
density 2. 0 T with a velocity of 2.5 x 10 7 ms-1 at an angle
of 30o with the field. Calculate the magnitude of the force
exerted on the charge by the field.
 WEEK
6
SCHEME OF
Week Space physics WORK
Week 6 Magnetic field
1 (IGCSE/WASSCE) II-(WAEC/IGCSE).

Week Radioactivity – (WAEC/IGCSE). Week 7 MID-TERM BREAK

2

Week Structure of the atom II(WAEC). Week 8 Electromagnetic field I

3

Week Electrical Conduction through Week 9 Electromagnetic field II

4 materials [Electronic]

Week Week Revision

5 Magnetic field I-(WAEC/IGCSE). 10
 WEEK
MULTIMEDIA LINKS/E-RESOURCES: 6
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yhNHJ7WdT8A
 WEEK
4
RELEVANT REFERENCES:
• New School Physics by Anyakoha
• New Complete Physics for IGSCE
by Stephen Pople
• Internet
Week 6
Electromagnetic field.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
Objectives: At the end of the lesson the students should be
able to
i).define electromagnetic field
ii). explain motor effect
iii).state the Fleming’s rule.
 ELECTROMAGNETI
C FIELD

Electromagnetic field is a field representing the joint

interaction of electric and magnetic forces.
Electromagnetic field exert forces on charged particles.
The force on a charge q moving with a velocity V is given by
F = q (E + VxB)
 Fleming’s left-hand motor rule
Fleming left hand rule
states that when the first
three fingers are spread
mutually perpendicular to
one another, the forefinger
points in the direction of
the magnetic field, the
middle finger in the
direction of the current,
and then, the thumb points Note:
in the direction of the force Magnetic field direction is
exerted on the conductor. from NORTH to SOUTH
Current direction is from
PLUS to MINUS
Devices that use current carrying
conductors and magnetic fields include
electric motors, generators, loudspeakers
and microphones.
 The electric motor
Electric current flowing
around the coil of the
electric motor produces
oppositely directed forces on
each side of the coil.

These forces cause the coil

to rotate.

Every half revolution the

split ring commutator causes
the current in the coil to
reverse otherwise the coil
would stop in the vertical
position.
Electric motor - Fendt
 rotation
axis

N S
contact brush

Brushes regain
in contact
lose contact
contact
with
with
with
thethe
split
the
split
split
ring
commutator.
ring commutator.
Current flows
no longer
through
flowsthe
through
motor the
coil.
coil
motor
but in the
coil.
opposite
original direction.
direction.
Forces exert a clockwise turning
effectcoil
Forces
The onexert
will
thecontinue
coil
a clockwise
to rotate
turning
split-ring commutator
clockwise
effect on the
duecoil.
to its momentum.

Electric motor - Fendt

 Maxwell’s Cork Screw Rule
• The rule holds that if a right hand cork screw is rotated
in such a direction that the tip of the screw is advanced in
the direction of the current, then the direction of rotation
of the thumb gives the direction of the magnetic lines of
force.
 WEEK 8
SCHEME OF
Week Space physics WORK
Week 6 Magnetic field
1 (IGCSE/WASSCE) II-(WAEC/IGCSE).

Week Radioactivity – (WAEC/IGCSE). Week 7 MID-TERM BREAK

2

Week Structure of the atom II(WAEC). Week 8 Electromagnetic field I

3

Week Electrical Conduction through Week 9 Electromagnetic field II

4 materials [Electronic]

Week Week Revision

5 Magnetic field I-(WAEC/IGCSE). 10
 WEEK 8: ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION.
Objectives:-At the end of the lesson, the students should be
able to;
i).define electromagnetic induction
ii).state the laws of electromagnetic induction.
iii). Compare AC and DC generators
iv). Explain the working principle in a transformer
 What is Electromagnetic
Induction?

• The production of an electric current by the movement of

a conductor in a magnetic field
• or by the movement or change in the magnetic field
around a conductor
• The inverse of the motor effect
 How and when does EM induction take
place?
When a conductor cuts across the field lines of a magnetic field a
current is induced in the conductor
The direction of the current is always such that it opposes the
motion which caused it.(Lenz’s law)
1.Wire moving downwards
through field

N S

2. Motion must be opposed.  Magnetic field between

magnets must be distorted like this. 3.  Magnetic field round wire must be like this, so
current must be outwards.

N S S
N
 Using Fleming’s Left Hand Rule with the Motor Effect to predict the
direction of the Force
First Finger points in direction of Field
SeCond Finger points in direction of Current N S
Thumb points in direction of Thrust or Force

Using Fleming’s Right Hand Rule with the Generator Effect

to predict the direction of the Current

ThuMb points in direction of Motion

First Finger points in direction of Field S N

SeCond Finger points in direction of Current

 Primary and secondary coils: Another way of inducing
current is by the use of another current. To do this, we
wind some turns of insulated wire into a coil which can
be introduced into a larger coil. The smaller coil is
called the primary coil, the larger coil is called the
secondary coil.

PHYSICS Thursday, 16 May 2013

A current then flows in the secondary
coil only when there is a current
change in the primary coil. The
changing current in the primary coil
produces a changing magnetic field ,
which in turns induces a current in the
secondary coil. We can increase the
flow of current by winding more turns of
wire in the coils or by having a soft iron
core inside both coils.
 LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

i. Faraday’s Law: whenever there is a change in the

magnetic lines of force (flux) linked with a circuit, an
electromotive force e.m.f. Is induced in the circuit.
ii. The induced e.m.f. In a circuit is directly proportional
to the rate of change of the magnetic flux or lines of
force linking the circuits.
 LENZ’S LAW
Lenz’s law: An induced e.m.f. Flows in such a direction as to
oppose the motion producing it.
Lenz’s law as an example of principle of conservation of energy.
When the magnet is moved towards the coil or away from it, we
do work against the magnetic field of the coil. We are doing
more work than we would have done, if the coil were not
present. This extra mechanical energy we have put into the
system is transformed into the electrical energy of the induced
current.
 EDDY CURRENT

Eddy current
when a metallic sheet (e.g. an aluminium sheet) swings in a
magnetic field, the movement of the sheet is SOON brought to
rest. This is due to eddy currents induced in the sheet due to
its motion wilting across the lines of magnetic field. By Lenz's
law, an e.m.f. is induced in the sheet in such a direction as to
oppose the motion of the sheet and this quickly brought it to
rest. The induced current in the sheet arising from the
induced e.m.f. is known as eddy current.
It consists of the following essential parts:
1. A.C GENERATOR
An armature- a rectangular coil consisting of a
large number of turns of insulated wire wound
on a laminated soft iron core.
2. A magnetic field supplied by the poles of a
horse-shoe magnet or an electromagnet
3. Two copper slip rings to which the ends of the
rectangular coil are connected and which rotate
with the armature
4. Two stationary carbon brushes which are made
to press lightly against the slip rings
 Moving Coil A.C. Generator

Generator - Fendt
Generator - Fendt
 This is like an electric motor in reverse.
As the coil is rotated electromagnetic induction occurs.
An alternating voltage is induced in the coil.
An alternating current is drawn off through two slip rings.
The faster the coil is rotated:
- the greater is the amplitude of the voltage and current
- the higher is the frequency of the a.c.

Generator - Fendt
 E.M.F FROM A GENERATOR
The e.m.f generated by a generator can be represented by the
equation
E = Eo sinŵ t
If the alternating e.m.f produced by the rotation of the
armature is applied to an external resistance, an alternating
current is produced.
An alternating current is a current which changes continually
in direction while passing through a conductor.
 D.C GENERATOR
When current flows in one direction only ,it is called a
direct current (d.c).
To obtain a d.c generator from a.c, we replace the slip rings
with a split ring commutator. As the current reverses in
the coil, the connections between the coil and the brushes
are reversed through the action of the commutator.
 In practical generators, larger
e.m.fs are produced by:
(a)Increasing the number of turns of
the coil
(b) winding the coil on a soft iron
core
(c)Increasing the strength of the
magnet
(d)Turning the coil faster
 A TRANSFORMER
• A transformer is an electrical device for changing the size
of an a.c. Voltage. It can increase or decrease the e.m.f of
an alternating current.
• It consists of two coils, called the primary and secondary
coils wound round a soft iron core that is made of sheets
of soft iron insulated from each other to reduce heat
losses. (i.e it is laminated)
 STEP-UP AND STEP-DOWN
TRANSFORMER

A step-up transformer is one that can be used to increase the

applied voltage. In such transformers, the number of turns
in the secondary coil is more than the number of turns in
the primary coil
Voltage is applied to primary coil and, we take transformed
voltage from secondary coil. There are two types of
transformer, step up and step down. We use step down
transformers in electrical devices like radio, and step up
transformers in welding machine.
 STEP UP TRANSFORMER

• This type of transformer used to increase the incident

voltage. Number of turns in secondary coil is larger than
the number of turns in primary coil.
A step down transformer is one that can be used to reduce
voltage. In such transformers, the number of turns in the
primary is more than in the secondary coil
i.e N p > Ns
The induced e.m.f at the secondary coil depends on the e.m.f at
the primary coil and the number of turns in both coils such that
Es/Ep = Ns/Np

Mutual inductance
Mutual inductance is the flow of induced current or voltage in a
coil due to an alternating or varying current in a neighbouring coil.

When an alternating e.m.f is applied at the terminal of the primary

coil, an alternating e.m.f of the same frequency as that of Ep is
induced in the secondary coil by mutual inductance.
The energy, W, stored in an inductor of inductance ,L is given as:
W = ½ LI2
This energy is used to produce the magnetic field in and around
the coil.
 In an ideal transformer, with a 100% efficiency,
the power developed in the secondary coil is
equal to the power developed in the primary coil.
i.e, Is x Es = Ip x Ep
hence , = But, Es/Ep =Ns/Np
Thus the equation becomes,

Es/Ep = Ns/Np = Ip/Is

 EFFICIENCY OF A
TRANSFORMER
This is given by:
E = output power/input power x 100%

= power in the secondary coils

power in the primary coils
 ENERGY LOSSES IN
TRANSFORMERS
• In practical transformers, the efficiency is not 100% due
to energy losses. The energy losses are due to the
following:
• 1. Eddy currents: These are currents produced by varying
flux cutting the iron core, Energy is lost in the form of
heat in the iron core due to eddy current.
 WEEK
9
SCHEME OF
Week Space physics WORK
Week 6 Magnetic field
1 (IGCSE/WASSCE) II-(WAEC/IGCSE).

Week Radioactivity – (WAEC/IGCSE). Week 7 MID-TERM BREAK

2

Week Structure of the atom II(WAEC). Week 8 Electromagnetic field I

3

Week Electrical Conduction through Week 9 Electromagnetic field II

4 materials [Electronic]

Week Week Revision

5 Magnetic field I-(WAEC/IGCSE). 10
 Week 9
CURRENT ELECTRICITY CONTINUED.
Objectives:- At the end of the lesson, the students should be able
to ;
i). Define shunt and multiplier
ii). Distinguish between shunt and multiplier.
iii). Solve simple problems involving the conversion of
galvanometer to ammeter and voltmeter.
iv). List methods of measuring resistance.
 GALVANOMETER
CONVERSION
• CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER TO AMMETER: We
can convert galvanometer into an ammeter by connecting
a suitable resistor in parallel with the galvanometer. A
resistor used for this purpose is called a SHUNT. The
shunt is a low resistance wire which is used to divert a
large part of the current being measured but to allow only
a small current to pass through the galvanometer.
 Ig G

I
s

R
shunt
 EXAMPLE
• A galvanometer of resistance 50 Ω which gives a full scale
deflection for 1 mA, is to be adapted to measure currents
of up to 5A. Calculate the resistance of the resistor
required
 SOLUTION
Current in galvanometer = 0.001A
Current through shunt = 5- 0.001 =4.999A
Potential through galvanometer = potential through shunt,
Vg =Vs
IsRs = IgRg
4.999 x Rs = 0.001 x 50
Rs = 0.001 x 50/4.999 = 0.01Ω
 CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER TO
VOLTMETER

• This can be done by connecting the galvanometer to a

high resistance or MULTIPLIER in series. Suppose we
wish to convert a galvanometer whose full scale
deflection is 10mA to a voltmeter capable of measuring
voltage up to 20 V (Rg = 5ohms)
The total voltage across the arrangement will be
V = V g + Vm

Vm = V – Vg

But Vg = I R = 0.01 x 5 = 0.05V

 POTENTIOMETER/ METER
BRIDGE
• A potentiometer is an • Meter bridge is based on
instrument for measuring the the principle of
potential (voltage) in a wheatstone bridge and it
circuit. Before the is used to find the
introduction of the moving
resistance of an unknown
coil and digital volt meters,
potentiometers were used in conductor or to compare
measuring voltage, hence the two unknown
'-meter' part of their name. resistance
 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

• For measuring accurately any electrical resistance Wheatstone

bridge is widely used. There are two known resistors, one
variable resistor and one unknown resistor connected in bridge
form as shown below. By adjusting the variable resistor the
current through the Galvanometer is made zero. When the
current through the galvanometer becomes zero, the ratio of two
known resistors is exactly equal to the ratio of adjusted value of
variable resistance and the value of unknown resistance. In this
way the value of unknown electrical resistance can easily be
measured by using a Wheatstone Bridge.
 ASSIGNMENT WK 9
• NSP EX4
• PAGE 405/406
• Q15,18 & 19