METHODS OF DATA

COLLECTION
DR BELLO
Methods of data
collection in
Qualitative Research
1. Participant observation

•Participant observation is a qualitative research method

whereby the researcher enters into the field, becomes a part of
the population of study.
•For instance, if someone wants to use the method of
participant observation to examine and report a case of
masquerade groups in oral literature, the researcher may be
expected to join the group in order to obtain the information.
Participant observation cont.

• Participant observation is advantageous because it enables

the researcher to obtain direct information. It also sheds
light on gray areas of research and most importantly, it helps
the researcher not to lose data in the process of research.
• It is time-consuming. Participant observation is also very
subjective in its approach in that it is only what the
researcher wants to note that he will note.
• Many researchers may not take the risk of joining groups
that may be dangerous.
2. In-depth interview
• It is a systematic way of obtaining detailed information about
a person’s opinion, beliefs, experiences through a one-on-
one interaction between the researcher and respondent.
• The researcher engages person-to-person interaction with
the respondent to elicit information concerning the variables
under study.
• In-depth interview is advantageous because it enables the
researcher to elicit information he would not normally have
elicited through a questionnaire or even through a focus
group discussion.
• The nature of in-depth interview is unstructured or semi-
structured.
In-depth interview cont.
• The respondent is allowed ‘free style’ on the topic of
interest, he’s allowed to say all that is within his or her
knowledge concerning it.
• There are no restrictions on the structure and timing of the
responses. Other matters of interest may be mentioned in
the discussion provided the areas are significant in the final
outcome.
• There are various methods of recording information during
the interview process. Recording with either an audio or a
video recorder but care should be taken to obtain the
consent of the interviewee before adopting either.
In-depth interview cont.
• It is important for the researcher to transcribe such
information immediately after the interview to reduce loss of
information.
• In order to elicit as much information as possible from
respondents during in-depth interview, the researcher
should ask only open-ended questions and encourage the
respondent to respond in a detailed manner to the raised
question, in so doing, the respondent freely expresses his
opinions, experiences and beliefs concerning the subject.
In-depth interview cont.
• The researcher should provide a plan of action, an interview protocol
and guide, train research assistants as necessary, collect, analyze and
interpret the data.
• In-depth interview is a research method of choice when a researcher
wants detailed clarifications concerning the variable of interest.
• The researcher here aims at exploring in-depth issues of interest from
the standpoint of the respondent.
• The researcher does not only record the information given by the
respondent but also records what he observes in a field note, his own
reflections on the subject matter that was discussed and also other
conversations
In-depth interview cont.
• The in-depth interviewer must be a good listener, must be
patient, must be open minded, must be able to transcribe
the information obtained from respondents or interviewees
and must be able to note none verbal cues in the
interviewee. Hence, it could be in the form of the following:
• • Structured
• • Semi structured
• • Unstructured
Unstructured in-depth interview
• In an unstructured in-depth interview, the respondent is not
stringently compelled to explore the theme or topic
developed by the interviewer.
• The questions are open-ended, hence, the informant or
respondent expounds on the topic. Here, the use of
questionnaire or other methods that structures the process
of the in-depth interview is not made.
• The researcher in this aspect of in-depth interview follows,
providing ideas in a non-imposing way while the respondent
leads the way.
Semi-structured in-depth
interview
• In semi-structured in-depth interview, the researcher takes a middle
course. He follows a particular structure when there is need but at
other times, he allows the respondent answer the proposed question
the way the respondent wants.
• Herein, information obtained can be used both qualitatively and
quantitatively
Structured in-depth interview
• In structured in-depth interview, the researcher enters with intent to
streamline what would be discussed and he does not give the
respondent any opportunity to digress into any detail even if the
detail will be beneficial to the topic at hand.
• Here, the researcher enters into the process with a goal in mind and
focuses only in achieving that particular goal or eliciting that
particular information.
• However, it is imperative to note that the techniques of these three
procedures of in-depth interview are different from those applied in
the ordinary interview process.
Advantages of in-depth interview

• 1. In -depth interviews are not as stressful as other qualitative

research method approaches. It is easy to conduct.
• 2. Immediate clarifications could be further elicited from the
respondent immediately issues are raised towards that
direction.
• 3. In-depth interviews are in-depth in nature because they
provide deeper information than other methods can provide.
• 4. In-depth interviews are useful when the research procedure
requires sensitive information which must be personally
obtained after the creation of adequate rapport.
Disadvantages of in-depth
interview
• . Social desirability which means that the respondent might
respond to some questions in a socially desirable manner
which may not be a true reflection of the truth is a major
challenge here
• 2. In-depth interview is time consuming from the participant
gathering stage to the interview proper and the transcription
and so forth is a long time.
• 3. The present emotional state of the respondent might
influence the respondent’s responses
Disadvantages of in-depth
interview
• 4. The interview setting must be stringently chosen so as to
reflect privacy and this is not always easily achievable
• 5. The process of choosing the right participants or
respondents is always tedious
• 6. In-depth interviews are subjective. The researcher might
add his/her own bias while the respondent can also do the
same in responding.
3. Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
• FGD is a qualitative method of data gathering aimed at
obtaining in-depth information from a particular group of
people called the focus group. The process involves a
facilitator and a group of about 6 – 12 persons who have the
same background.
• The researcher acts as the facilitator, with the group
members discussing the topic raised by the facilitator freely.
In some cases, there are cofacilitators.
• Sometimes, an FGD is not completed in a day. Once this is so,
the researcher adjourns the session as many times as
possible until all the information is exhausted.
Focus Group Discussion (FGD) cont.

• An FGD is aimed at eliciting attitudes, ideas or perceptions of

the group. Can be in form of teleconferencing where a
telephone conference is used to get information from a
group of respondents.
• The researcher chooses the objectives of the meeting, plans
the meeting session, carefully selects the group using his pre-
planned selection criteria, schedules the meeting in a
conducive setting, sets ground rules and holds the session.
• It is important for the researcher to immediately make notes
of the meeting during the session.
Advantages of FGD
• 1. FGD enables the researcher have an ample information on
the topic within a little period of time
• 2. It takes into consideration the specific opinion of each
group member
• 3. FGD produces responses that are equal to those of the
population from which the focus group is drawn
• 4. It is easy to conduct
• 5. FGD is not capital intensive
Disadvantages of FGD

• 1. FGD is not appropriate for use as a single research tool, it is

most appropriate to use it with another research tool
• 2. There is also the need to always conduct more than one FGD so
as to have a representative sample
• 3. FGD cannot be used to discuss very sensitive topics like sexual
exposure, etc
• 4. In FGD, the researcher has no absolute control over the
respondents
• 5. There is also the challenge of social desirability
• 6. FGD is subjective since the researcher will have to analyze the
information
Methods of Data
Collection in
Quantitative Research
In quantitative research design, data is
objectively needed in quantifiable form and
this fact influences all that the researcher
does in the process of designing the study.
1. Questionnaire

• A questionnaire is a data gathering instrument in

which respondents are given standardized or uniform
questions to complete in written form. It is a
quantitative approach.
• The distinguishing features are uniformity of
questions and response options, as well as the written
(typed or printed) nature of the questionnaire.
Questionnaire cont.
• Questionnaire is useful for collecting data on people’s
knowledge, awareness, beliefs, preferences, attitudes,
opinions, behaviors and level of satisfaction.
• Questionnaire can be used in descriptive, correlational and
experimental studies. Questions are predetermined
(constructed in advance).
Types of Questionnaire

• This refers to the way questions appear in the questionnaire

i.e. in terms of the format or structure.
• There are three types of questionnaires are therefore
distinguishable namely:
• (a) the structured questionnaire,
• (b)the unstructured questionnaire, and
• (c) the semi-structured questionnaire. The structured and
unstructured types are dominantly in use and discussed.
Structured Questionnaire
• In a structured questionnaire, the possible (range of
responses) answers are predetermined by the researcher
and provided for the respondents to choose from.
• For example, a question trying to determine one’s year of
study will provide the range of possible answers like Year1,
Year 2, Year 3, Year 4, etc. and the respondents are expected
to select their answer from the options.
• A structured questionnaire is suitable for generating
responses that can easily be coded, given scores and
analyzed statistically.
Structured questionnaire
• Although a structured questionnaire is time consuming
during preparation, it is however easy to analyze as it is
amenable to statistical manipulation.
• But one of its weaknesses is that it forces an opinion on
respondents because of the predetermined nature of the
answers. However, in a structured questionnaire, there may
be few unstructured (open-ended) questions towards the
end of questionnaire.
• This inclusion of few questions does not make the
questionnaire to be called semi-structured.
Unstructured Questionnaire
• In unstructured questionnaire, the questions are in an open-
ended format (even though they may all be similar to those
on structured nature), and the possible range of responses
are not predetermined by the researcher.
• It is open-ended because respondents have the choice of
what to say, how to begin to say it, and when to stop saying
it.
Unstructured Questionnaire
• The respondents are given the discretion or option to
provide whatever they think are the answers to the
questions.
• An unstructured questionnaire is particularly suitable when a
researcher is interested in having deeper insights into an
issue.
• This is because unstructured questions provide opportunity
for respondents to give details or reasons justifying their
answers
Unstructured Questionnaire
• An unstructured questionnaire is very useful when a
researcher is interested in generating answers from
respondents either because he does not have good
knowledge of the possible range of responses or because the
range of responses are so many that restricting them, may
affect the quality of the responses.
•
Unstructured Questionnaire
• Thirdly, unstructured questions are easy to formulate or
prepare.
• On the other hand, unstructured questionnaire generates
responses that are difficult to code and analyze statistically
as they are mostly useful for a qualitative research.
• The wide range of responses for instance, makes coding very
cumbersome and tedious.
Unstructured Questionnaire
• The opportunity given to respondents to provide their own
answers, is at times abused by some respondents who would
not only give very lengthy answers but would also end up
providing irrelevant ideas.
• Such lengthy and irrelevant responses usually end up wasting
the time of the researcher. These shortcomings
notwithstanding, unstructured questions should be inserted
in the questionnaire, when and where they are most
appropriately needed particularly when a researcher wants
to probe further or deeper on an answer to a structured
question.
Semi-structured Questionnaire
• The semi-structured questionnaire, there are both the structured and
unstructured questions in the same questionnaire. There is flexibility in the
appropriate of both structured and unstructured questions.
• Consequently, in characterizing a questionnaire (in terms structured, semi-
structured or unstructured), the guiding principle is to look for what
constitutes the dominant or overriding format of the questions. This means
that when the questions and expected responses are largely pre-determined
by the researcher, it is called structured questionnaire.
• Then, when they are open-ended and responses are left to the discretion of
respondents, it is called unstructured questionnaire. And lastly, when the
questions have attributes of both structured and unstructured questions, it is
called semistructured questionnaire.
Advantages of Using Questionnaire

• 1. It is used to generate data from a large number

of people;
• 2. It is less expensive;
• 3. It requires less skills to administer;
• 4. It saves time and effort as it can be administered
to many respondents at the same time;
Advantages of Using
Questionnaire
• 5. The anonymity of respondents has a better
chance of being guaranteed;
• 6. It permits greater uniformity in measurement;
• 7. Questionnaires generate data that can easily be
coded, scored and analysed statistically; and
• 8. The response rate is high because of its
convenience and guarantee of anonymity especially
the mail questionnaires.
Disadvantages of using Questionnaire

• 1. As a result of its written and standardized form, a

questionnaire does not apply to illiterate members of
the population.
• 2. When worded ambiguously or in a sophisticated
and complex manner, respondents may be misled
thereby making responses unreliable.
• 3. Open-ended (unstructured) questions are
difficult to code and analyze.
Disadvantages of using Questionnaire

• 4. Questionnaires may produce opinions that are

shallow or superficial due to lack of opportunity to
probe deeper into the motives behind and beyond the
responses given.
• 5. Structured questions may restrict the choice of
answers thereby forcing opinions on respondents.
Guidelines for Preparation of Questionnaire

• A questionnaire is made up of three broad and major

parts namely: Part one dealing with Introductory
Issues: Part Two dealing with Socio-Demographic or
Background Issues; and Part Three dealing with the
Substantive Issues of the survey.
• Let us discuss these various parts further especially in
terms of the specific things required
Guidelines for Preparation of Questionnaire

• (a) Introductory Issues

• The questionnaire needs a covering or introductory letter in
which the (a) identity of the researcher; (b) the topic of the
research; and (c) the main purpose of the research are all
stated. The closing part of the letter should contain a statement
guaranteeing anonymity and protection of respondents’
identity. This is an important ethical requirement in scientific
research undertaking. In order to save cost, this introductory
letter is normally placed on the first page of the questionnaire
where the second part of the questionnaire begins
Guidelines for Preparation of
Questionnaire
• b) Socio-Demographic or Background Information
• This part of the questionnaire contains questions on the
background information of the respondents. It is important
to note that the topic of the research and the units of
analysis (i.e. whether it is workers, students, organization, or
groups that are subjects of investigation), determine the kind
of background data to be sought.
Guidelines for Preparation of
Questionnaire
• Put differently, the nature of sociodemographic data
required from respondents first depends on whether the
topic of investigation requires such data, and secondly
whether the study is on individuals, groups or institutions
which are different units of analysis that can be studied
generally.
Guidelines for Preparation of
Questionnaire
• With this observation at the back of our mind, we can now
identify the following socio-demographic variables which a
questionnaire can contain.
• It is important to note that there is no need to include name
of respondents as this is part of the guarantee of anonymity.
Guidelines for Preparation of
Questionnaire
• a)Sex (Gender): This is usually a dichotomous classification of
male and female.
• (b)Age: This is better put in grouped form, for example 20
years and below, 21-30 years, 31-40 years, 41-50 years and
above. The range allowed depends on those being studied.
• For example, a study on primary and secondary school
children and students would start from say 6 years and
below, while those studying university students would start
from say 16 or 17 years, and those on workers etc would
start at say from 20 years or more years.
Guidelines for Preparation of Questionnaire

• (c) Unit or Section, or Department or Institutional or organizational

affiliation, as the study may demand.
• (d) Qualification: The various relevant qualifications can be listed out
for the respondents to tick the applicable ones. Depending on the
nature of the research, what may be required is just highest
qualification.
• (e) Rank (Position): This may just involve listing out Junior,
intermediate and senior categories of staff. But where the research
requires further classifications, it should be done to accommodate
such need.
Guidelines for Preparation of Questionnaire

• ) Length of Service: This may require grouping of the years such as 5

years and below; 6-10 years; 11-15 years; 16-20 years; 21 years and
above.
• The highest length of service expected can serve as a useful guide on
what should constitute the range of years. It is important to note that
length of service can yield the same information which age and rank
yield.
• Each of these three variables can be a proxy for the others. For example,
most of those who are old may also be the ones that have stayed long in
the service (and with the exception of old and long serving junior staff),
these old and long serving senior staff are equally the ones that are
most senior in rank for members in the same profession
Guidelines for Preparation of Questionnaire

• (g) Religious Affiliation: Classification of this may be

dichotomous, trichotomous or more, depending on what is
being studied. The classification may be intra-religious (i.e.
denominational) rather than inter-religious.
• For example, a dichotomous inter-religious classification
would be Christianity and Islam. And then a trichotomous
inter-religious classification would include another religious
group such as Traditional African religious or Buddaism
Guidelines for Preparation of Questionnaire

• i) Ethnic Affiliation or Group if it is relevant.

• (j) Year of study if the study is on students.
• (k)Region, or regional location, (e.g. East, West, North etc.).
• (l) State of origin if it is relevant.
• (m) Local Government (Origin) if it is relevant.
• (n) Zone (for example geo-political zones) if it is relevant, etc.
• (c) Substantive Issues in the Questionnaire
Guidelines for Preparation of Questionnaire

• This major part of the questionnaire may have several

sections depending on the extensiveness of the issues
covered by the questionnaire.
• For example, each major or principal research question
(recall our discussion earlier in Module 3, Unit 2) may
constitute a sub-heading or section in the questionnaire.
• Several questions may be addressing one principal research
questions and data from such questions constitute the basis
for testing of hypothesis.
Guidelines for Preparation of Questionnaire

• It is very important to take note of this point because in the

presentation, analysis and discussion of data, some project
supervisors may insist that either the principal research
questions or the hypotheses should constitute the basis of
organizing the presentation.
• Two important issues which need to be tackled under the
substantive part of a questionnaire, are the nature of
question formats, and response modes, to be adopted.
Question Formats and Response Modes

• Our earlier discussion on the forms of a questionnaire in

terms of structured and unstructured types, form the basis
of this present discussion.
• The following question formats which are accompanied by
certain response modes are usually used in surveys:
(i) Open-ended Questions

• An Open-ended question is an example of unstructured

question, allows respondents to provide answers according
to their own understanding of, and thinking, on the question.
• It is open-ended because respondents have the choice of
what to say, how to begin to say it, and when to stop saying
it.
• As an unstructured type of question, an open-ended
question format, is useful for gaining deeper knowledge, but
problematic when such knowledge requires quantification
and analysis.
(ii)Fixed-Alternative Question

• This is a form of structured questions in which respondents are

provided with predetermined responses from which to choose.
Various types of fixed-alternatives are:
•• Dichotomous Question: This type of question presents only two
options such as Yes or No, Agree or Disagree, True or False etc.
Dichotomous question format is useful for capturing responses which
exist in either this or that categorization. It should however be
avoided when other alternatives to the either –or category exist. This
is why it is called a categorical question.
(ii)Fixed-Alternative Question
cont.
•• Trichotomous Question: This form of question presents three
alternatives especially when such is not fully captured by a
dichotomous question. For example, a ‘No-idea’ option can be
included in the dichotomous question. It could as well be an
undecided option.
•• Multiple-Choice Question: Any question that provides three or
more response options can be called a multiple choice question.
These response options can be without weights attached. But a
particularly useful form of multiple type of fixed alternative question
is the Likert Scale type or format to which we now turn.
(ii)Fixed-Alternative Question cont.
•• Likert Scale Question Format: This type is used to
establish the intensity of opinion of respondents after their
direction of opinion has been established through a
dichotomous question of simple Yes or No format.
• Likert question format is used when series of attitude
statements are presented and respondents are required to
endorse or reject them within a framework of a five-point-
scale of say strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree and
Strongly disagree
(ii)Fixed-Alternative Question
cont.
•• Ranking-Order Question: In this form of question,
multiple answers are presented as options but rather than
choosing just any one, the respondents are asked to rank
order them (i.e. place them in order of importance).
• The respondents may be provided a ranking criterion such as
1-6 or (a) –(f). The data generated can be analyzed
statistically by simple percentages or summing the rank of
the responses. This summation is a form of ordinal
measurement.
Things to avoid in Questionnaire Preparation

• 1. Lengthy Questionnaire: As much as possible, lengthy

questionnaires should be avoided so as not to scare away potential
respondents.
• 2. Haphazard Placement of Questions: The questionnaire should
contain questions (or statements on attitude) that are only arranged
in logical sequence.
• 3. Ambiguous Questions or Statements: All questions or
statements should be clear as much as possible
• 4. Overlapping Questions or Statements: The existence of
overlapping questions would generate confusion with respect to
responses, hence should be avoided.
Things to avoid in Questionnaire
Preparation
• 5. Offensive and Objectionable Items: All such questions
and statements should be avoided so as not to scare away
potential respondents.
• 6. Questions and Statements with Underlying and
Unfamiliar Assumptions: Such items have the potential of
misleading respondents, and therefore should be avoided.
• 7. Leading Questions which suggest the existence of only
one acceptable answer.
• 8. Complex Questions which are too long and confusing
Things to avoid in Questionnaire
Preparation
• 9. Direct and Emotionally-Loaded Items: All questions
and statements that are very direct and at the same time
emotionally loaded, have the tendency to offend
respondents and thereby discouraging them from
completing the questionnaire.
• Efforts should be made to eliminate phrases or words of
such nature.
•THANKS FOR YOUR
ATTENTION