GROUP

DYNAMICS AND
SOCIAL
FUNCTIONING
WHAT IS A GROUP?
 A group could be defined as two or more individuals who share
certain characteristics, interact with each other and/or share
some common identity or objectives.
 Groups vary in size from dyad (2 members), triad (3 members), tetrad (4
members), to pentad (5 members), and to very large aggregations, such as
mobs, audiences and communities (i.e., the University of Lagos community).

o Some key characteristics of groups:

 Goals: Every group has particular goals that drive its existence.

 Norms: Groups establish rules for interacting with one another.

 Structure: Groups have a defined structure based on roles and positions

held by members.

 Roles: Each member within a group has specific responsibilities assigned

by the group leader
GROUPS?
 What a group is also vary, with some focusing on such qualities as
communication, influence, interdependence, shared identity, and
so on. However, in terms of types, groups may exist as:
 Primary Groups: are small, intimate groups of people who have face-to-face
contact, frequent interaction, and a sense of emotional closeness and support,
and high levels of interdependence among members that substantially
influence the attitudes, values, and social outcomes of its members. Members
of primary groups share personal information and feelings, and often have a
long-term and enduring relationship. Examples of primary groups include
families, close friends, and small communities. Primary groups are important
for providing social support, a sense of belonging and identity, and a
foundation for socialisation and learning.
 Secondary Groups: have relatively large number of individuals who interact
with one another over an extended period of time. They are often larger and
more formally organised than primary groups, and relationships/membership
tend to be relatively shorter in duration and less emotionally involving, but
rather share a common goal or interest. Examples of secondary groups include
workplace teams, interest groups, and political organisations. Secondary
groups are important for achieving specific goals, networking, and learning
new skills and knowledge.
GROUPS?
 Collectives: are large aggregation or group of individuals who
display similarities in actions and outlook. Any gathering of
individuals can be considered a collective, but most theorists
reserve the term for larger, less intricately interconnected
associations among people. The members of collectives are
joined by their common interest or shared actions, but they often
owe little allegiance to the group.
 (Social) Category: is a perceptual grouping of people who are
assumed to be similar to one another in some ways but different
in one or more ways. Social categories, even though based on
similarity rather than interaction, often influence members’ social
identity. As social psychologist Henri Tajfel (1974) explained,
members of the same social category often share a common
identity with one another. They know who is in their category,
who is not, and what qualities are typical of insiders and
outsiders. This perception of themselves as members of the same
group or social category (Social Identity).
CLASSIFICATION OF GROUPS?

Groups

Primary Secondary (Social)

Collectives
Groups Groups Categories

Audiences, Men,
Families, Co-workers,
queues, Africans,
close teams,
crowds, Nigerians,
friends, crews,
social Lesbians,
small study
movement, Doctors,
cliques, etc. groups, etc.
etc. etc.
SOCIAL GROUPS?
 A social group can only be a group to the extent that its members have something in
common; at minimum, they are similar because they all belong to the group. If a
collection of people are interested in the same things, share the same opinions and
beliefs, or work together on the same task, then it seems they should be considered
—by both themselves and others—to be a social group. However, if there are a lot of
differences among the individuals, particularly in their goals, values, beliefs, and
behaviours, then they are less likely to be seen as a social group.

 For instance, a social group’s size also determines how many social ties (relationships)
exist within it. In dyad for instance (i.e., best friends, lovers, etc.), members are linked by
strong emotional bonds that make their dynamics so intense that they belong in a
category on their own with just ONE social ties. In larger groups, members may rarely
connect directly to all other members, subgroups are very likely to form, and one or
more leaders may be needed to organise and guide the group.
 Formula for calculating the social ties in a group is n(n – 1)/2 .
 The relations that connect members also vary in type, strength, and duration; some are
more psychological than interpersonal. For example, in families, the relationships are
based on kinship, but in the workplace, they are based on task-related
interdependencies. In family groups, members are linked by strong psychological bond,
but in the workplace, the members are linked by common interests or experiences.
SOCIAL IDENTITY AND SOCIAL GROUP
 Social identity is commonly defined as a person’s sense of self derived from perceived
membership in social groups. When we belong to a group, we are likely to derive our
sense of identity, at least in part, from that group.
 Social identity theory was developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner (1979) to
understand the psychological basis for intergroup discrimination. According to this
theory, social identity has three major components: categorisation, identification and
comparison.
 The first component, categorisation, is the process of putting people, including
ourselves, into categories. Labelling someone as a Muslim, a female, or a soldier
are ways of defining these people.
 The second component, identification, is the process by which we associate
ourselves with certain groups. Ingroups are groups we identify with, and
outgroups are ones that we don’t identify with.
 The third component, comparison, is the process by which we compare our
groups with other groups, creating a favourable bias toward the group to which
we belong.

o One insight from social identity theory is that the groups to which people belong mean
something to them. Once a person sees herself as part of a group, she derives self-
esteem from that group membership.
CLASSIFICATION
Groups OF classified
can also be SOCIAL GROUPS?
as
FORMAL and INFORMAL
Basis of Comparison Informal Group Formal Group

General nature Unofficial, Small, Intimate, Official, Formal,

Often frequent interaction Task oriented
Major concepts Power and social position Authority and
responsibilities

Primary focus Person Position

Source of leader’s Given by group Delegated by

power management
Guidelines for Norms Rules and
behaviour policies
Source of control Sanctions Penalties
GROUPS?
What distinguishes one group from another?
All groups share some common features. Some of these features include size
of the group, the tasks they are attempting, the group’s cohesiveness or the
permeability of the group’s boundaries.
 Composition (Who Belongs to the Group?): Each person who belongs to
a group defines, in part, the nature of the group.
 Boundaries (Who Does NOT Belong?): Groups’ boundaries define who is
a member and who is not, although open groups and social networks are
more permeable.
 CLOSED GROUPS have rigid boundaries; thus, membership changes more slowly.
 OPEN GROUPS are relatively permeable and membership is fluid; meaning members
may voluntarily come and go as they please with no consequences. Open groups are
especially less cohesive and unlikely to reach a state of equilibrium since
commitment may be low in open groups.
 SOCIAL NETWORKS: lack clear boundaries that define who is a member and who is
not. To become part of a social network, an individual need only establish a
relationship of some sort with a person who is already part of the network,
therefore, social relationships in can vary from the inconsequential and ephemeral
to the deeply meaningful and long-enduring.
GROUPS?
What distinguishes one group from another?
 Size (How Large Is the Group?): The number of possible relations in a
group increases exponentially as groups increase in size.
 Interactions (What Do Members Do?): Many of the most interesting,
influential, and entertaining forms of human action are possible only
when people join with others in a group. Interaction could either be
based on TASK or RELATIONSHIP. TASK INTERACTION includes all group
behaviour that is focused principally on the group’s work, projects,
plans, and goals. While RELATIONSHIP INTERACTION includes the
socio-emotional interaction which relate to or influence the nature and
strength of the emotional and interpersonal bonds within the group,
including both sustaining (social support, consideration) and
undermining actions (criticism, conflict).
 Interdependence (Do the Members Depend on Each Other?) This
entails MUTUAL DEPENDENCE, as when one’s outcomes, actions,
thoughts, feelings, and experiences are partially influenced and
determined by others in the group, and vice versa.
GROUPS?
 Structure (How Is the Group Organised?): This entails the organisation
of a group, including the members, their interrelations, and their
interactions. Group interaction is patterned by group structure,
including roles, norms, and interpersonal relations.
 Goals (What Is the Group’s Purpose?): The members of groups pursue
their own goals, but because their goals are interdependent, groups
promote the pursuit of other members’ goals and group-level goals.
We will discuss further while examining mutual-aid group.
 Origin (Founded or Formed?): Groups tend to fall naturally into two
categories: PLANNED GROUPS, which are deliberately formed by its
members or an external authority for some purpose. And EMERGENT
GROUPS, which come into existence spontaneously when individuals
join together in the same physical location or gradually over time as
individuals find themselves repeatedly interacting with the same
subset of individuals.
GROUPS?
 Cohesiveness (How Unified Is the Group?): Group cohesion is the
integrity, solidarity, social integration, and unity of and within a
group. A group’s cohesiveness is often based on commitment to the
group’s purposes, rather than on social bonds between members.
‾ Social cohesion: The attraction of members to one another and to the
group as a whole.
‾ Task cohesion: A shared commitment among members to achieve a goal
and the resulting capacity to perform successfully as a coordinated unit.
‾ Collective cohesion: Unity based on shared identity and belonging.
‾ Emotional cohesion: Group-based emotions, including pride, esprit de
corps, and overall affective intensity.
‾ Structural cohesion: The group’s structural integrity, including normative
coherence, clarity of roles, and strength and density of relationships linking
members.
 Entitativity (Does the Group Look Like a Group?) This is the quality
of being a single entity rather than a set of independent, unrelated
individuals.
WHAT IS A GROUP DYNAMICS?
 Is a system of influential interpersonal, behavioural and
psychological processes occurring in and between social groups
over time.
These processes not only determine how members relate to and
engage with one another, but they also determine the group’s
inherent nature and trajectory: the actions the group takes, how
it responds to its environment, and what it achieves.
 For example, groups tend to become more cohesive over time. Larger
groups often break down into smaller subgroups. In most groups, one
person is allowed to exert more influence over the other members.

 It is the study of the behaviour of individuals in groups, how they

become members and how they react to others in the group.
 At the core of the study is the concept that groups cannot be
understood by merely studying individual members. The whole is
greater than the sum of its parts.
FEATURES OF SOCIAL GROUPS
Groups usually have the following features:
 Norms include shared expectations or rules that determine
appropriate behaviour
 Roles that are assigned to people that determine what
behaviours and responsibilities people should take on.
 Cohesion that determines the degree of unity and mutual
attraction within a group, which can affect group motivation,
satisfaction, and performance.
 A communication structure that determines who talks to
whom within the group
 A power structure that determines how much authority and
influence group members have.
PROCESSES IN GROUP DYNAMICS
 Formative processes, such as the need to belong to and affiliate in groups,
contextual factors that promote the formation of groups, and the
development of group cohesion.
 Influence processes, including aspects of group structure (norms, roles,
relationships), conformity and dissent, social power, obedience to group
authority, and leadership.
 Performance processes, such as group productivity, social motivation,
working in teams, and collaborative decision making.
 Conflict processes within groups, conflict is ubiquitous (ever-present)
aspect of group life, it arise from many sources, as disagreements over
minor and major issues, personality conflicts, and power struggles cause
once close collaborators to become hostile adversaries. To understand
conflict, we must understand how to emerge, evolve and mitigated in
groups — intragroup conflict—and between groups—intergroup conflict.
 Contextual processes that are dependent on the group’s physical setting
and specific purpose, including change-promoting groups and large
collectives.
GROUP DEVELOPMENT
Bruce Tuckman’s (1965) theory of group development assumes
that over time most groups move through five stages: forming,
storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.
Stage Major Processes Characteristics
Orientation: Members become familiar with each Communications are tentative,
Forming other and the group; dependency polite; concern for ambiguity,
and inclusion issues; acceptance of group’s goals; leader is active;
leader and group consensus members are compliant
Conflict or Disagreement over procedures; Criticism of ideas; poor attendance;
Power expression of dissatisfaction; tension hostility; polarisation and coalition
Struggle: among members; antagonism formation
Storming toward leader
Structure: Growth of cohesiveness and unity; Agreement on procedures;
Norming establishment of roles, standards, reduction in role ambiguity;
and relationships; increased trust, increased “we feeling”
communication
Performance: Goal achievement; high task Decision making; problem solving;
Performing orientation; emphasis on mutual cooperation
performance and production
Dissolution: Termination of roles; completion of Disintegration and withdrawal;
Adjourning tasks; reduction of dependency increased independence and
emotionality; regret
GROUP’S SOCIAL INFLUENCE ON INDIVIDUAL
ADJUSTMENT/FUNCTIONING
Social influence refers to the ways in which individuals are affected by others,
leading to changes in their attitudes, beliefs, or behaviours. Groups have social
influence through interpersonal processes that change the thoughts, feelings, or
behaviour of another person. An example is:
 Consensus decision-making: is a group decision-making process that seeks or
enforces consent, not necessarily the agreement of participants or the resolution of
objections.
 Group polarisation: refers to the tendency for groups to make decisions that are
more extreme than the initial inclination of its members.
 Herd behaviour: describes how individuals in a group can act together without
planned direction. The term pertains to the behaviour of animals in herds, flocks
and schools, and to human conduct during activities such as, street demonstrations
turning violent, sporting events and fanaticism, religious gatherings, episodes of
mob violence and everyday decision-making, judgment and opinion-forming.
 Groupthink: is a psychological phenomenon that occurs within groups of people. It
is the mode of thinking that happens when the desire for harmony in a decision-
making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. Group members try to
minimise conflict and reach a consensus decision without critical evaluation of
alternative ideas or viewpoints.
GROUP’S SOCIAL INFLUENCE ON INDIVIDUAL ADJUSTMENT/FUNCTIONING
Deindividuation: implies a loss of one’s individuality. This occurs when individuals are moved by
the group experience to do things that, without the group for support, they would not normally
do. It is characterised by an individual relinquishing self-consciousness and self-control and
doing what the group is doing. This often means that they will go along with whatever the group
is doing, whether it be rioting, looting, lynching, or engaging in cyberbullying.
 Obedience: is a form of social influence that occurs when a person yields to explicit
instructions or orders from an authority figure in a group. For instance, during the Hitler’s
Nazi government in Germany, a lot of Germans went along with the killing of millions of Jews
and other minorities by simply just obeying instruction regardless of how immoral and
destructive such instructions were.
 Compliance: refers to a response, specifically a submission, made in reaction to an implicit
or explicit request. This occur when a person responds favourably to a request from others
in the group even when such requests are not in their favour, are extreme and/or
debilitating to them or others. Alternative religious groups and cults may demand extreme
sacrifices from members, including suicide or murder of perceived blasphemers, etc.
 Conformity: refers to the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours to group norms.
For example, adolescent peer groups, gangs, fraternities and cults often have strong
pressures that these groups put on their members. As such, drug use and illegal activities
are often traced back to conformity pressures of adolescents’ peer groups. For instance, A
person might start smoking because their friends smoke, demonstrating conformity.
SOCIAL INFLUENCE OF GROUPTHINK ON
INDIVIDUAL FUNCTIONING
 Groupthink can also create a strong ability to work together to solve problems
more efficiently than individuals or less cohesive groups, BUT, often results in
an incorrect or deviant decision-making outcome because individuals’ desire
for unanimity overrides their motivation to realistically appraise alternative
courses of action. According to Janis, groupthink occurs when a group has the
following characteristics:
 Cohesiveness: The group members feel a strong sense of identity and
solidarity with the group.
 Insulation: The group is isolated from outside perspectives and
information.
 Directive leadership: The group has a strong and directive leader who
dominates decision-making.
 Lack of impartial leadership: The group leader does not encourage critical
evaluation of ideas or alternative solutions.
 Homogeneity: The group members share similar backgrounds, values, and
beliefs.
When these conditions are present, groupthink occurs, leading to several
potential negative outcomes, the group and its members will demonstrate
poor decision-making, stereotyping of outsiders, self-censorship, and illusion
of unanimity.
DYNAMICS?
 Individuals are commonly members of groups rather than isolated from
them, so to understand people one must understand groups.
 Due to the fundamental attribution error, the influence of groups on
individuals is often underestimated.
 Groups alter their members’ attitudes, values, and perceptions. groups
(primary groups, cults or fraternities, etc.) influence members in
substantial and enduring ways.
 Social dysfunction of people may arise from the structure and pattern
of relationships in and between groups.
 Groups influence society by mediating the connection between
individuals and society at large. For example, it is often through groups
that people learn and indoctrinate cultural values and norms.
 Despite the many problems caused by groups (competition, conflict,
poor decisions), humans could not survive without groups.
 Understanding of groups and their dynamics yield solutions to a
number of practical problems of people and society making the study
of groups relevant to many professional and scientific fields of study.
BENEFITS OF GROUPS
Groups also serve several positive effects on individuals and society:
 Sense of Belonging and Identity: Groups can provide individuals with a sense of
belonging and social identity, which can increase feelings of self-worth and
connectedness.
 Social Support: Groups can provide emotional and practical support to individuals
facing challenges or stress, such as through peer support groups or self-help groups.
 Learning and Growth: Groups can provide opportunities for individuals to learn new
skills and knowledge, and to develop personal and social competencies.
 Diversity of Perspectives: Groups can expose individuals to diverse perspectives and
experiences, which can broaden their understanding and empathy for others.
 Collective Action and Social Change: Groups can facilitate collective action and
mobilise individuals around shared goals or values, leading to social change and
progress.
 Health and Wellbeing: Groups can promote physical and mental health and the well-
being of people through activities such as socialising, collective unburdening, and
stress reduction techniques.
 Creativity and innovation: Groups can facilitate creativity and innovation by allowing
individuals to share ideas and collaborate on projects, leading to new insights and
solutions.