LEARNING

Learning
• Learning is a key process in human behaviour.

• It refers to a spectrum of changes that take place as a result of one’s

experience.

• Learning may be defined as “any relatively permanent change in behaviour

or behavioural potential produced by experience.

• Changes due to practice and experience, which are relatively permanent, are
illustrative of learning
 Features of Learning
1. Learning always involves some kinds of experience. For example,
one learns that if the bell rings in the hostel after sunset, then dinner is ready to be served.
Repeated experience of satisfaction after doing something in a specified manner leads to the

formation of habit.

2. Behavioural changes that occur due to learning are relatively permanent.

For example, changes in behaviour often occur due to the effects of fatigue, habituation, and drugs.
Suppose you are reading your textbook of psychology for sometime or you are trying to learn how
to drive a motor car, a time comes when you will feel tired. You stop reading or driving. This is a
behavioural change due to fatigue, and is temporary. It is not considered learning.
3. Learning is an inferred process and is different from performance.
Performance is a person’s observed behaviour or response or action
 PARADIGMS OF LEARNING
• Learning takes place in many ways.
• There are some methods that are used in acquisition of simple
responses while other methods are used in the acquisition of complex
responses.
1. Classical conditioning
2. Instrumental/operant conditioning.
3. observational learning
4. cognitive learning
5. verbal learning, and skill learning
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

• This type of learning was first investigated by Ivan P. Pavlov.

• Pavlov’s Experiment

• Pavlov designed an experiment to understand this process in detail.

• In the first phase, a dog was placed in a box and harnessed. The dog was left in the
box for some time. This was repeated a number of times on different days. In the
meantime, a simple surgery was conducted, and one end of a tube was inserted in
the dog’s jaw and the other end of the tube was put in a measuring glass
• In the second phase of the experiment, the dog was kept hungry and placed in
harness with one end of the tube ending in the jaw and the other end in the glass
jar.

• A bell was sounded and immediately thereafter food (meat powder) was served to
the dog. The dog was allowed to eat it.

• For the next few days, everytime the meat powder was presented, it was preceded
by the sound of a bell. After a number of such trials, a test trial was introduced in
which everything was the same as the previous trials except that no food followed
the sounding of the bell. The dog still salivated to the sound of the bell.
• This association between the bell and food resulted in acquisition of a
new response by the dog. i.e. salivation to the sound of the bell. This
has been termed as conditioning.
• S-S Learning:-one stimulus signifies the possible occurrence of
another stimulus.
• Neutral Stimulus: The bell
• Unconditioned Response: No salivation
• Natural Stimulus: Food
• Natural Response: Salivation
• Conditioned Stimulus: The Bell
• Conditioned Response: Salivation
• Unconditioned stimulus (US) is something that elicits an automatic and
natural response.

• unconditioned response (UR) is one that is automatic, reflexive, and

unlearned.

• Conditioned stimulus (CS) is a learned behavior that must come from the
combination of potent stimuli and Nuetral stimuli.

• Conditioned response (CR) is a response that becomes associated with a

previously unrelated stimulus as a result of pairing the stimulus with
another stimulus normally yielding the response.
 Determinants of Classical
Conditioning
Forward conditioning :-usual method of classical conditioning, in which
the conditioned stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus.

Backward conditioning :-is a behavior conditioning method in which

the unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented before a neutral stimulus
(NS).
 1.Time Relations between
Stimuli
• Simultaneous conditioning :- When the CS and US are presented together

• Delayed conditioning :- the onset of CS precedes the onset of US. The CS

ends before the end of the US.

• Trace conditioning :- the onset and end of the CS precedes the onset of US
with some time gap between the two.

• Backward conditioning :- the US precedes the onset of CS.

• Delayed conditioning procedure is the most effective way of acquiring
a CR.

• Simultaneous conditioning procedures do lead to acquisition of a CR,

but they require greater number of acquisition trials in comparison to
the delayed conditioning procedure.

• It may be noted that the acquisition of response under backward

conditioning procedure is very rare.
 2.Type of Unconditioned Stimuli

• The unconditioned stimuli used in studies of classical conditioning are basically

of two types, i.e. appetitive and aversive.

• Appetitive unconditioned stimuli automatically elicits approach responses, such

as eating, drinking, caressing, etc. These responses give satisfaction and
pleasure.

• On the other hand, aversive US, such as noise, bitter taste, electric shock, painful
injections, etc. are painful, harmful, and elicit avoidance and escape responses.
• Appetitive classical conditioning is slower and requires greater
number of acquisition trials, but aversive classical conditioning is
established in one, two or three trials depending on the intensity of
the aversive US.
 3.Intensity of Conditioned
Stimuli
• More intense conditioned stimuli are more effective in accelerating
the acquisition of conditioned responses.

• It means that the more intense the conditioned stimulus, the fewer
are the number of acquisition trials needed for conditioning.
 Classical conditioning in everyday
life
• Imagine you have just finished your lunch and you are feeling
satisfied. Then you see some sweet dish served on the adjoining
table. This signals its taste in your mouth, and triggers the secretion of
saliva.
• In the early stages of childhood, one is naturally afraid of any loud
noise. Suppose a small child catches an inflated balloon which bursts
in her/his hands making a loud noise. The child becomes afraid. Now
the next time s/he is made to hold a balloon, it becomes a signal or
cue for noise and elicits fear response.
• The familiar ping of a notification can make your heart pump with excitement, or it could induce
stress. Your smartphone, once a neutral stimulus or object, becomes a conditioned stimulus, and
your emotional response is the conditioned response. App developers understand this far too
well; maybe that’s why we’re blessed with so many notification bells every day.

• The colors of the traffic light signals specify different actions — green means go, red means stop,
and yellow means be ready. Over time, we learn to associate these colors with particular
behaviors and not just while driving.

• For instance, when exercising, have you ever felt a burst of energy when seeing a green light
somewhere in your gym, or perhaps in your fitness app, or maybe when the red signal light stops
you from exercising for a second or two for no reason at all?
OPERANT/INSTRUMENTAL
CONDITIONING
• Operant conditioning was first investigated by B.F. Skinner.

• Skinner studied occurrence of voluntary responses when an organism

operates on the environment. He called them operants.

• Operants are those behaviours or responses, which are emitted by

animals and human beings voluntarily and are under their control.
• Operant conditioning is a learning method that employs rewards and
punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an
association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether
negative or positive) for that behavior.

• Skinner conducted his studies on rats and pigeons in specially made

boxes, called the Skinner Box
Skinner’s experiment
 Operant conditioning in
everydaylife
• Children who want to have some sweets in the absence of their
mother learn to locate the jar in which mother hides the sweets for
safekeeping and eat it.
• Children learn to be polite and say ‘please’ to get favours from their
parents and others.
• One learns to operate mechanical gadgets such as radio, camera, T.V.,
etc. based on the principle of instrumental conditioning. As a matter
of fact human beings learn short cuts to attain desired goals or ends
through instrumental conditioning
Determinants of Operant
Conditioning
• A reinforcer is defined as any stimulus or event, which increases the
probability of the occurrence of a (desired) response.
• A reinforcement schedule is the arrangement of the delivery of
reinforcement during conditioning trials. Each schedule of
reinforcement influences the course of conditioning in its own way;
and thus conditioned responses occur with differential characteristics.

• Continuous reinforcement

• Partial reinforcement

• Delayed reinforcement
 Reinforcement
• Reinforcement is the operation of administering a reinforcer by the
experimenter.
• Reinforcers are stimuli that increase the rate or probability of the
responses that precede.
• We have noted that reinforced responses increase in rate, while non-
reinforced responses decrease in rate.
• A positive reinforcer increases the rate of response that precedes its
presentation.
• Negative reinforcers increase the rate of the response that precedes
their removal or termination.
• The reinforcers may be primary or secondary.

• A primary reinforcer is biologically important since it determines the

organism’s survival (e.g., food for a hungry organism).

• A secondary reinforcer is one which has acquired characteristics of

the reinforcer because of the organism’s experience with the
environment. We frequently use money, praise, and grades as
reinforcers. They are called secondary reinforcers.
 Extinction

• Extinction means disappearance of a learned response due to removal of

reinforcement from the situation in which the response used to occur.

• If the occurrence of CS-CR is not followed by the US in classical

conditioning, or lever pressing is no more followed by food pellets in the
Skinner box, the learned behaviour will gradually be weakened and
ultimately disappear.
 Resistance to extinction.

• It means that even though the learned response is now not reinforced, it
would continue to occur for sometime.

• However, with increasing number of trials without reinforcement, the

response strength gradually diminishes and ultimately it stops occurring.

• It has been found that with increasing number of reinforced trials

resistance to extinction increases and learned response reaches its highest
level.
• At this level performance gets stabilised. After that the number of
trials do not make a difference in the response strength.

• Resistance to extinction increases with increasing number of

reinforcements during acquisition trials, beyond that any increase in
number of reinforcement reduces the resistance to extinction.

• Studies have also indicated that as the amount of reinforcement

(number of food pellets) increases during the acquisition trials,
resistance to extinction decreases.
• If the reinforcement is delayed during acquisition trials, the resistance
to extinction increases.
• Reinforcement in every acquisition trial makes the learned response
to be less resistant to extinction. In contrast, intermittent or partial
reinforcement during acquisition trials makes a learned response
more resistant to extinction.
 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
• Do Learning takes place by observing others ?
• imitation
Observational learning is a type of learning where individuals learn by
observing the behaviors of others and the consequences of those
behaviors. It's often referred to as "learning by watching" or "social
learning.
• Children learning language: Children learn language by observing and
imitating the speech of adults around them.
• Learning social skills: Children learn social skills, such as sharing and
cooperation, by observing the behavior of others.
• Adopting new behaviors: Adults can learn new behaviors, such as
healthy eating habits or exercise routines, by observing the behavior
of others.
• Social media trends: Users often adopt new behaviors or language
patterns after observing them on social media platforms.Influencer
marketing:
• People may purchase products or services because they have seen
influencers using them and endorsing them.
• Gaming strategies: Gamers learn new strategies by watching other
players or by watching tutorials.
• Social norms: We often learn about social norms and expectations by observing
the behavior of others around us. For instance, we might learn how to behave
at a formal dinner party by observing the behavior of others at the table.
• Cultural customs: Cultural customs are often passed down through generations
through observation and imitation. For example, children might learn traditional
dances or songs by watching their elders perform them.
• Peer pressure: Peer pressure can be a powerful influence on behavior.
Adolescents may engage in risky behaviors because they observe their peers
doing so.Leadership styles: Leaders often learn their leadership styles by
observing the behavior of other leaders. For example, a new manager might
adopt a more participative leadership style after observing the success of a
colleague who uses this approach.
Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment: A Classic
Study in Observational Learning

• Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment: A Classic Study in Observational Learning

• Bandura's Bobo doll experiment is a landmark study that has significantly contributed to our understanding of observational
learning. As you described, the experiment involved three groups of children who were exposed to different models of behavior:
• Reward model: Children observed a model being rewarded for aggressive behavior.
• Punishment model: Children observed a model being punished for aggressive behavior.
• No consequence model: Children observed a model's aggressive behavior without any consequences.
• The results of the experiment were quite clear:
• Children who saw the reward model were most aggressive. This suggests that positive reinforcement can significantly influence the
likelihood of a behavior being imitated.
• Children who saw the punishment model were least aggressive. This indicates that negative consequences can deter individuals
from imitating a behavior.
• Children in the no consequence group showed intermediate levels of aggression. This suggests that while consequences can
influence behavior, other factors, such as personal characteristics or the context, may also play a role.
• Key takeaways from Bandura's experiment:
• Observational learning is a powerful way to acquire new behaviors.
• The consequences of a model's behavior can influence whether or not the behavior is imitated.
• Observational learning is not just about imitating behaviors; it also involves internalizing the underlying rules and principles.
COGNITIVE LEARNING
• Learning Through Thinking
• Cognitive learning is a type of learning that focuses on how
individuals acquire, process, and retain information through mental
processes. It involves the active engagement of the mind, including
thinking, understanding, and problem-solving
Cognitive

Latent learning
learning

Insight learning
• Insight learning is a type of cognitive learning where a solution to a
problem suddenly becomes clear, often described as an "aha!"
moment. Unlike trial-and-error learning, which involves gradual
improvement through repeated attempts, insight learning involves a
sudden understanding of the problem and its solution.
• Kohler's chimpanzee experiments are a classic example of insight
learning. In these experiments, chimpanzees were presented with a
problem, such as reaching a banana hanging from a ceiling. After a
period of apparent inactivity, the chimpanzees would suddenly exhibit
a flash of insight, using a box or pole to reach the banana.
Latent Learning
• Latent Learning: Learning That Lies Dormant
• Latent learning is a type of cognitive learning where knowledge and skills are acquired
without immediate reinforcement, but are only demonstrated when there is a motivation to
do so. It suggests that learning can occur even when there is no immediate incentive to
perform the learned behavior.
• Tolman's maze experiment is a classic example of latent learning. In this experiment, two
groups of rats were placed in a maze. One group was rewarded with food at the end of the
maze, while the other group was not. Initially, the unrewarded group showed no signs of
learning the maze. However, when they were eventually rewarded, they were able to navigate
the maze as quickly as the group that had been rewarded from the beginning.
• Tolman argued that the unrewarded rats had developed a cognitive map of the maze, a
mental representation of the spatial layout. This cognitive map was formed through their
exploration, even though they didn't show any overt signs of learning. When the reward was
introduced, the rats were able to use their latent knowledge to navigate the maze efficiently.
• Key characteristics of latent learning:
• Hidden learning: Knowledge is acquired without immediate
reinforcement.
• Cognitive maps: Mental representations of the environment.
• Motivation: Reinforcement is necessary to motivate the display of
learned behavior.
• Latent learning is important because it shows that learning can occur
even when there is no immediate reward. This has implications for
education and training, as it suggests that learning experiences can be
valuable even if they don't immediately result in observable outcomes.