SYSTEM

DEVELOPMENT -
NOTES
Introduction

 System development involves identifying business

requirements and developing information systems that will
effectively help to support the day-to-day operations &
decision-making processes in an organization.
Definition of a System
 A System is a set of organized components which interact

in a given environment and within a specified boundary to

achieve collective goals & objectives that are emerging.
 Examples of systems are:
 Education (school) system.
 Transport system.
 Bicycle system.
 Banking system, etc.
Description of a system

 A system can be described as either being Soft or Hard.

1. Soft systems:
 This is a system whose boundaries keep on changing. Its goals &
objectives usually conflict, and may not be captured clearly at any one
given time. This is because; they are based on human factors such as
attitudes & preferences.

Examples of soft systems:

i. A Political system: - it is very difficult to come up with a system that
will predict the political mood in a country over a given period of time.
ii. A sales tracking & prediction system in an organization: - sales in
an organization depend on human factors such as attitude in the
market place.
2. Hard systems

 These are systems whose goals & objectives are clearly

defined, and the outcomes from their processes are
predictable and can be modelled accurately.
Example of a hard system:
i. Stock management system in a supermarket: - it is
possible to know exactly the stock levels, cost, selling
price, and to predict accurately the profit if all the
stock is sold.

 Note. A good system should have features of both

soft & hard systems.
 CHARACTERISTICS (FEATURES) OF A
SYSTEM
 All systems have some common characteristics. Some of these
characteristics are:
1. Holistic thinking
 These refers to considering a system to be a whole unit.

2. Purpose
These is the objective that the system was designed to achieve.
3. System boundaries and environment
 Each system is required to operate within a specific framework or

limits. The space within which the components of a system operate is

known as its boundary. Outside this boundary is the environment,
from which inputs are received & to which outputs are communicated.

4. Sub-systems
Each system is made up of different components (or other systems) that
communicate with each other.
This means that, a system does not exist alone, but it is composed of
subsystems, which are also made up of other subsystems .
CHARACTERISTICS (FEATURES) OF A
SYSTEM

5. Inputs & outputs

A system communicates with its environment by receiving inputs & giving outputs.
6. A Process
A system will usually transform data from one state to another.
7. System control
A system has some controls that help it not to operate beyond its boundaries.
Control is the method by which a system adapts to changes in the environment
in order to give the expected output or to perform to the expected level.
8. System entropy (decay)
A system slowly becomes useless to the user either due to improvement in
technology, new management policies or change in user requirements.
Therefore, a system must be reviewed with the aim of improving it or to developing
a new one.
9. Open and closed system
An open system interacts and communicates with its environment constantly, it
receives inputs from and gives output to the environment, while a closed system
does not.
Revision Questions.

1. What do you mean by a System?

2. Differentiate between soft systems and hard systems.
3. List five characteristics of a system.
4. Explain the term system boundary.
5. a).What is system Control?
b).Why do we need feedback in a system?
6. Distinguish between open and closed systems.
Information System
 An Information system is an arrangement of people,
data processes & information that work together to
support and improve the day-to-day operations in a
business and the decision-making process.
Purposes of an Information system:
a. To support information processing tasks such as data
collection, processing & communication.
b. Help in decision making by collecting data, analyzing it,
and generating reports that can be used in decision
making process.
c. Enables sharing of information between
departments/users in a given organization.
Why develop new information systems?

 Circumstances that necessitate the

development of new Information systems:
1. New opportunities ~ a chance to improve quality
of internal processes and services delivery in the
organisation
2. Problems ~ these are undesirable circumstances
that prevent the organisation from achieving its
goals.
3. Directives ~ these are new requirements
imposed by the management or the government.
 Qualities of a good information system:
1. Reliability~ it should be trust worthy.

2. Timely ~ information should be available

whenever it is required.
3. Availability ~ it should be accessible to
those who require it.
4. Relevance ~ it should have a bearing on
matters pertaining to the performance of the
organisation.
5. Accuracy ~ the information should be
correct.
Information system Analyst:

 An Information system Analyst is a person who identifies

the problems & needs of an organization, then designs &
develops an information system to solve these problems
on a computer.
Roles of an Information system analyst:
1. Reviews the existing system & makes
recommendations on how to improve or implement an
alternative system.
2. Works hand in hand with programmers to construct a
computerized system.
3. Coordinates the training of new system users and owners.
4. He is the overall project manager of the information system
being implemented. Some of his project management duties
include: assuring quality, keeping within schedule & budgeting.
Assignment :

1. Explain three system development theories:

(a) State one disadvantage of the
Traditional approach in system development.
(b) State the main advantage of Rapid
Application Development method.
Stages of system development(System
Development Life Cycle)

 The stages of developing a system are called the

System development life cycle (SDLC).
 The 7 main stages in system development include:

1. Problem recognition and definition.

2. Information gathering.

3. Requirements specification.

4. System design.

5. System construction (coding).

6. System testing and implementation.

7. System review and maintenance.

 Note. Each stage serves a role in the
problem-solving process, and therefore they
must be followed systematically.
1. Problem recognition and definition.
 Problem recognition is done during the Preliminary
investigation. A preliminary investigation is carried to
find out if really there is need for change.
 During the problem recognition stage, the system analyst
seeks to answer two questions:
1) Is the proposed project worth looking at?
2) Is the project worth pursuing?
 Problem definition is the process of identifying &
understanding the problem, and finding out any
limitations that may limit the solution.
 A special study called a feasibility study is carried out. A
Feasibility study is a study carried out to establish the
costs & benefits of the proposed new system.
 Types of feasibility studies.
 There are four types of feasibility studies:
1) Technical feasibility.
 This tries to establish whether the proposed solution can

be supported by the available technology.

2) Economic feasibility
 This is done to determine if the proposed solution is

financially affordable.
3) Operational feasibility
 This is done to determine if the proposed solution is able

to be used and will be in a proper working condition.

4) Schedule feasibility
 This is done to determine if the proposed solution can be

developed and made operational within the required

time.
 Note: This cost-benefit analysis study will then indicate
whether the proposed system is viable or not.
Otherwise, a new system should only be developed if its
benefits are more than its costs.

 After the feasibility study, a feasibility study report is

produced, which outlines the following:
i. Recommendations on whether to continue or abandon
the project.
ii. The performance of the new system in relation to the
existing system.
iii. Limitations & benefits expected.
iv. The development plan for the new system
 2. Information gathering
(Fact-finding) stage.
 This is the collection/gathering of all information required
to implement a computer system.
 After the feasibility study report has been approved by
the management, the system analyst then proceeds to
identify the techniques that will help the management to
gather enough information relating to the starting of the
system.
Fact-finding techniques
 The following are some of the common

methods/techniques used to collect data:

a) Document review (study of available
documents or records).
b) Use of questionnaires.

c) Interviewing.

d) Automated methods.
a) Document review (study of available documents):
 This involves going through all the existing
documents/records, which relate to the system being
investigated in order to find out information that describe
the data & procedures of the current system
Advantages of documents review
i. It helps the analyst to gather basic background
information about the system.
ii. It assists the analyst in designing interview questions &
questionnaires.
iii. It helps the analyst in deciding whom to interview.
 Disadvantages of documents review
i. The documents may not have been modified
to reflect the current status of the system.
ii. Human systems are dynamic. This implies
that, after sometime, the real system will have
changed greatly from the documented one.
iii. Documents relating to a system are usually
bulky. Therefore, reading all the documents
will be time-consuming.
iv. The documentation may be poor or
incomplete, thus the analyst may not obtain
all the information he would require.
 b. Observation:
 This method requires the analyst to participate in or
watch closely as a person performs some activities for a
period of time in order to see for oneself what exactly
happens in the system.
Advantages of observation
i. Data collected is highly reliable, since the method
gives the real picture of the system.
ii. Concepts or tasks that are too difficult for non-
technical staff to explain in words can be clearly
observed.
iii. Allows the analyst to do some measurements.
iv. It is relatively cheap compared to other techniques.
 Disadvantages of observation
i. The presence of the analyst may make the person
being observed perform differently (or change
behaviour) leading to wrong requirements being
observed.
ii. The work being observed may not involve the level of
difficulty or volume normally experienced during that
time period.
iii. The need to be on the site where the activities are
taking place consumes a lot of time.
iv. Tasks being observed are subject to various types of
interruptions.
 c. Use of Questionnaires:
 A Questionnaire is a special-purpose document that

allows a person to collect information & opinions from

respondents.
 The method involves sending out forms containing

questions with spaces for response to a group of people.

Circumstances in which a questionnaire is used for
gathering information:
i. The information to be gathered is located over widely
spread geographical areas.
ii. A large number of people are to be questioned, and the
questions to be asked require short answers, or are
limited to Yes/No.
iii. 100% coverage is not essential.
iv. Privacy (anonymity) of the respondents is to be
maintained.
 Advantages of questionnaires
i. Questions can be answered quickly, since respondents can complete
& return the questionnaires at their convenient time.
ii. Use of questionnaires gives the respondents privacy; hence, there is
likelihood that the information given is sincere & real.
iii. Questionnaires provide a relatively cheap means for data being
collected from a large number of individuals.
iv. Responses can easily be tabulated & analysed quickly.
Disadvantages of questionnaires
v. Good questionnaires are difficult to prepare.
vi. Number of respondents is usually low.
vii. The respondent may not fully understand the questions because of
ambiguity of language; hence, he/she may end up giving wrong
responses.
viii. No guarantee that an individual will answer or explain on all the
questions.
ix. No immediate opportunity to clarify an unclear or incomplete answer
to any question.
x. Not possible for the analyst to observe & analyse the body language
of the respondents.
 d. Interviewing:
 Interviewing is the process of obtaining information from another
party by means of conversation.
 Interviews enable the system analyst (who is the Interviewer) to
collect information from the affected individual (Interviewee)
through face-to-face communication.
 The Interviewer asks questions and the Interviewee responds with
answers.
Advantages of interviews
i. An interview provides the analyst with an opportunity to
motivate Interviewees to respond freely & openly to questions.
ii. It allows the analyst to rephrase/frame questions for each
person.
iii. It allows the analyst to prompt/urge for more feedback from the
Interviewee.
iv. It gives the analyst an opportunity to observe the verbal & non-
verbal communication such as facial expressions of the
interviewee.
 Disadvantages of interviews
i. It is difficult to organize interviews. This makes the
method time-consuming & costly.
ii. Many system analysts are poor interviewers, thus there
is a possibility of failure.
iii. The interviewee may not fully open up on some issues
that may be personal or sensitive.
iv. Interviewing may not be practical due to the location of
the interviewees.
e. Automated methods:
 Automated data collection is mostly used when actual data

is required but difficult to get through interviews,

observation, or questionnaires.
 Such data may be collected using devices that

automatically capture data from the source such as Video

cameras, Tape recorders, etc
 3. Requirements
specification
In requirements specification, the system
analyst must come up with detailed
requirements for the new system.

The following requirements specifications

are considered:

a) Output specification.
b) Input specification.
c) File/data structures.
d) Hardware & software requirements.
a) Output requirements.

 In system development, the output

requirements of the new system are
considered first. This is because; the
main interest from a system is
information (output
 The output is usually in the form of
reports either in the form of hardcopy
or softcopy.
The following factors should be considered when designing the output:

– Target audience:
•

– Frequency of report generation (i.e., the time at

which the output is required): - some reports are
required daily, others weekly, monthly or
annually.
•

– Quality and format of information to be

generated.
– Cost of producing the output: - the output should
be at reasonable cost.
b) Input specifications.

• Once the system analyst has

identified the output requirements
for the new computerised system,
he/she then identifies the input
needed to obtain the relevant
information from the system.

• The input to the system is necessary

because the contents input are used
to maintain the master files.
• After identifying all the inputs, the
analyst designs the user interface by
designing data entry forms or screens.
• When designing the user interface, the

following guidelines should be

observed:
1. Objects such as Textboxes, Labels, and
Command buttons placed on the forms
must be neatly aligned & balanced on
the form.
2. The size of the form should not be too
small for the user to read or too big to
fit on the screen.
3. The colour of the interface should not
be too bright to avoid hurting the eye.
c) File requirements
specification.
• This involves identifying the files required to store data &
information in the system.
• The system analyst should:
•

a) Identify the number of files that will be needed by the

system.
b) Determine the structure of each of the files, e.g., will
the files allow direct access? Will they be sequential
files stored on a magnetic tape?
c) Identify the attributes of the records in a file.
•

• An Attribute is a unique characteristic of a record for

which a data value can be stored in the system database.
•

• Note. These attributes are used when designing tables in

a database, and each attribute becomes a field in the
table.
d) Hardware & software
requirements.
• The system analyst should specify all the hardware &
software requirements for the new system.
•

• The hardware & software used to develop the system

mainly depends on Input, Output & File requirements,
e.g., if the system requires data in picture format,
then an image capturing device such as a Digital
camera or a Scanner must be used.
• Some of the factors to consider in hardware &

software specification are:

1. Cost (price)
2. Method of acquisition.
3. Reliability & security features.
4. Upgradeability.
5. Compatibility with the existing resources.
4. System Design
 In the design stage, the analyst must
come up with ways of solving the
problem.
The following are some of the tools used
for designing an information system:
1. System flowcharts.
2. Data flow diagrams.
3. Entity relationship models.
4. Structured charts.
 Designing a system flowchart.
 A system flowchart gives a summary of how
particular processes are done within the
business organization.

 The following are some of the important

guidelines when designing a system flowchart:
1. Start by writing the title of the
flowchart.
2. If possible, start drawing the flowchart
with the trigger event.
3. List down the actions taken in their
logical order until the process is
concluded. Use few words to describe
the actions.
4. In case there are many alternatives at
the decision stage, follow the most
important and continue with it. The
less important alternatives can be
drawn elsewhere and reference made to
them using the On-page or Off-page
connectors.
Revision Questions.
1. State two methods that a system
analyst may use to design a system.
2. (a) Differentiate between a system
flowchart and a program flowchart.
(b) Draw four system flowchart
symbols and explain their functions.

5. System construction

• System construction refers to the coding,

installation and testing of the modules and
their components such as outputs, inputs &
files.
• The purpose of the construction stage is to
develop & test a functional system that fulfils
the design requirements of a particular
organization.
• System construction is done by programmers
System testing

 After constructing the system, it is

tested by entering some test data
to find out whether its outputs are
as expected.
 When the system is newly
developed, it can be first tested
using dummy (assumed) data,
while real/live test data can be
used for normal circumstances to
find whether the system can detect
report errors.
System testing is carried out in
order to achieve the following aims:

• To test the programs further to

detect any errors. This is because;
after testing the programs, some
errors might have gone unnoticed.
• To find out whether the system
meets all requirements specified.
6. System implementation

 System implementation is the

process of putting the new system
in day-to-day operating
environment for the users to start
using it.
 A system is put into use after it
has been fully tested, well
documented, and after training the
staff who will be involved in the
running of the new system.
 The areas to be addressed during system
implementation include:
• File conversion.
• Staff training.
• Changeover strategies.
i. File conversion:
 Every time a new system is
implemented, the format of data files
might change or might require
modification.
 The files can either be created from
scratch or those that were used in the
old system can be converted to be used
in the new system.
The factors to consider during file
conversion include:
1. Whether the new system requires a
new operating system & hardware.
2. Whether there is need to install new
application software,
3. Whether there is need to create new
database files for the new system, e.g.,
if the files previously used were
manual, then electronic ones will have
to be created.
ii. Staff training

After designing a new system, all the staff

affected by the change should be trained
properly on how to use/run the system.
The aims of the training are:
 To remove the fear of change in them.

 To convince the staff on the effectiveness &

efficiency of the new system.

 To enable the staff to cope with the

processing tasks of the new system.

 To train them on how to use the system

without any difficulties.

The following methods of staff training
can be used depending on the
requirements:
• Demonstrations.
• Film shows.
• Group discussions.
• Lectures or seminars.
• Visits.
• Reference from the available documents
such as User manuals, etc.
• NB: if the staffs are not trained properly,
the system implementation can fail
leading to great loss of company
iii. Changeover strategies:
 Changeover is simply how to move from the
old system and start using the new system.
The changeover should be planned & effected
at the most suitable time for a smooth
transition to the new system.
The following are some of the common
methods/ways of system changeover:
 Direct (straight) changeover.

 Parallel running.

 Phased changeover.

 Pilot running.
a) Direct (straight)
changeover:
 In Straight changeover the old system is
stopped & abandoned and the new system
started immediately.
 This sudden change from old to new can
be very inconveniencing in case the new
system fails, faces problems, or in a
situation where the users have not gained
enough confidence to run the new system.
Advantage of Direct changeover.
 It is usually cheap because; two systems
are not run in parallel
b) Parallel running:

 Both the old & the new systems are run

side by side (parallel) to each other for
some time until users have gained
confidence in the new system then the old
system is abandoned.

 The old system is only abandoned if the

new system proves to be satisfactory.
Advantages of parallel running.
i. It promotes user confidence since it
allows the results of the old & new
system to be compiled side-by-side.
ii. It is reliable because it enables thorough
testing.
iii. The users are given time to familiarize
themselves with the new system.
Disadvantages of parallel running
iv. The cost of operating & maintaining the
two systems would be high.
c) Phased changeover:
 In phased changeover, the new system is
implemented in stages, e.g., one
department after the other, while the other
departments are still being processed by
the old system. When each new phase is
proved satisfactory, another one is brought
in.
For example;
 Changing of the education system from the

old curriculum to the new curriculum. Each

year, at least one class level changes over
to the new syllabus.
 Advantage of phased changeover.
• It ensures slow but sure changeover.
Disadvantage of phased changeover.
• The various elements (i.e., hardware &
software) of the same system may be
incompatible.
d) Pilot running:
• A pilot system changeover refers to the process of
transitioning from one system to a new one in a
controlled, limited environment to test its
effectiveness before a full-scale implementation.
how a typical pilot system changeover process works:
1. Create a testing environment, often a smaller subset of
the overall system.
2. Select a group of users or departments that will be part
of the pilot phase
Advantages of pilot
changeover
i. Reduced the risk of system failure or widespread user
dissatisfaction during the full rollout
ii. Early Feedback
iii. Real-World Testing - The system is tested in a real
working environment.
iv. Flexibility - If the pilot proves unsuccessful, the
organization can roll back to the old system or pause
the full deployment
Disadvantages of pilot
changeover
i. Limited Scope – it involves only a small subset of users
or departments.
ii. Time-Consuming:
iii. Potential Resistance from Users
iv. Resources intensive – it requires dedicated resources
 Security control measures
 The data & information in an information
system must be kept secure. This is
because; if not well protected, the
information can be illegally accessed or
disclosed to unauthorized parties.
7. System review &
maintenance
System review
 System review is a formal process of going
through the specifications, and testing the
system after implementation to find out
(establish) whether the system meets the
original objectives, or whether it performs
as predicted in the designed framework.
 If the system does not meet/achieve the
stated objectives, system development
might start all over again.
System maintenance
 System maintenance is the process of
adjusting & enhancing of requirements, or
correcting of errors that may be detected
after the system has been implemented in
order to keep the system functioning at an
acceptable level.
System documentation
 Documentation is the process of describing
all what the analyst was doing during the
system development stages.
• Documentation is done by the analyst who
developed the system, and is used as a
means of communication between the system
analyst & the end-users of the system.

• NB: System documentation takes place

throughout the system development life
cycle. After a system has been implemented,
any maintenance work must be documented
& the analyst modifies or updates the system
documents (manuals) so as to reflect the
current image of the system .
User manual
 User manuals are used to help a person use
the system with little or no guidance.
 The manual must contain information such

as:
i. How to install, start and run the system.
ii. How the system appears when running
(interface).
iii. How to carry out various tasks, e.g., how
to include a new entry, data entry, how to
modify a record, etc
iv. A troubleshooting guide, which describes
error correction & how to get help when
faced with problems.