Unit 4(Defects)

1.The lack of something necessary or

desirable for completion or perfection; a
deficiency.
2.An imperfection that causes inadequacy
or failure; a shortcoming.
Defect is defined as non-conformity observed
in a unit against the specifications. A unit may
have multiple types of defects at the same
time.
 defect diagnosis
• The defect diagnosis is an important task to
improve the yield and reduce the cost.
• Diagnosis management is a time consuming
process due to multiple process stages, machines,
materials, and methods.
• The time-consuming nature of diagnosis
increases the manufacturing cost.
• Data mining approach as well as a
management model of manufacturing data
should be used for saving diagnostic time.
 Data mining
• Data mining approach is a well-known tool for knowledge
discovery from a massive amount of data.
• Its analysis procedure can be a combination of a machine
learning algorithm, statistical analysis, artificial intelligence,
and data management. There are five standard steps in a
data mining procedure:
• (1) problem definition,
• (2) data preparation and transformation,
• (3) data analysis
• (4) interpretation of the results, and evaluation of remedial
measure
• (5) implementation of remedial measure .
 Scientific procedure can be adopted
for defect investigation ,diagnosis
and prevention
• Which defect need to be investigated
• Management approval
• Defining responsibility
Study of
• Study of defects product

Data collection

Identification of defective
component /process

Analysis of process

Evaluation of remedial
measures

Implementation of
corrective measures
Failure modes effects and criticality
analysis (FMECA)
• FMECA is a quality tool which builds on the results of functional analysis
to identify risks and their consequences.
• It is a analysis techniques which facilitates the identification of potential
problems in the design or process by examining the effect of failures.
• objective of FMECA is to identify the components of products and systems
most likely to cause failure.
• Product reliability and customer satisfaction will improved by preventing
failures from occurring.
FMEA (it is focused on potential failure modes associated with the proposed
function of a concept proposal) is based on an qualitative approach while
FMECA takes a quantitative approach and is an extension of the FMEA.
FMECA is the result of two steps
• FMEA(failure mode and effect analysis)
• Critically analysis(CA)
 Steps for FMECA
The general steps for FMECA development are as follows:
FMEA Portion
Define the system
Define ground rules and assumptions to help drive the design
Construct system Boundary Diagrams and Parameter Diagrams
Identify failure modes
Analyze failure effects
Determine causes of the failure modes
Feed results back into design process
FMECA Portion
Transfer Information from the FMEA to the FMECA
Classify the failure effects by severity (change to FMECA severity)
Perform criticality calculations
Rank failure mode criticality and determine highest risk items
Take mitigation actions and document the remaining risk with rationale
Follow-up on corrective action implementation/effectiveness
 TYPES OF FMEA/ FMECA
• FMEA(Failure mode and effect analysis)
• Concept FMEA(CFMEA)
• The concept of FMEA is used to analyse concept
in the early stage before hardware is defined .
• DFMEA(design FMEA)
• The design FMEA is used to analyse
products before they are released to production.
• It focuses on potential failure modes of products
caused by design deficiencies.
• Design FMEAs are normally done at three levels.
• System
• Subsystem
• combination
 Process FMEA
• Process FMEA(PFMEA)
THE PROCESS FMEA is normally used to analyse
manufacturing and assembly processes at all
the system, sub system or component levels.
There are two main phases of The FMECA
1. The probability of failure
2. Failure prevention.
FMECA ANALYSIS PROCESS

1. Identify Potential Failures

FMECA can help determine and list all the failures that may occur in a
product, system, and more. It identifies failure modes, whether in a car
engine, computer system, and more.
2. Understanding Impact
FMECA helps in understanding what happens if those failures actually
occur. For example, if a machine breaks down, how much damage could
it cause? How would it affect productivity or safety?
3. Prioritizing Risks
It also helps in deciding which failure modes are the most critical. That
way, you can use the resources focused on resolving the most important
ones first.
4. Enhance Reliability
FMECA isn’t all about just preventing problems or potential failures. It is
also about making a product or system more reliable. Understanding
potential failures allows for improvements to make things work.
5. Improve Design and Reliability
FMECA also assists you in designing better systems by identifying weak
points early. By doing this, you will be able to make improvements.
Thus, you can prevent failures before systems are even built.
 Defect prevention
• Defect prevention means to avoid defects before
and during operation, instead of finding and
removing them afterwards.
Defect prevention should begin with an assessment
of the critical risks associated with the system.
Getting the critical risks defined allows people to
know the types of defects that are most likely to
occur and the ones that can have the greatest
system impact.
Defect Prevention Process
 Identify Critical Risks
• The first step in preventing defects is to understand
the critical risks facing the project or system. The
best way to do this is to identify the types of defects
that pose the largest threat.
• In short, they are the defects that could jeopardize
the successful construction, delivery and/or
operation of the system.
• These risks can vary widely from project to project
depending on the type of system, the technology,
the users of the product, etc. These risks might
include-
• Poor design
• Use of wrong material
• Wrong heat treatment
• Worn cutting tools
• Incorrect jig & fixtures
• Error in measurement process
• Inadequate training of employees.
 Estimate Expected Impact
• Once the critical risks are identified, the financial impact of
each risk should be estimated. This can be done by
assessing the impact, in Rs.
• if the risk does become a problem combinebn bd with the
probability that the risk will become a problem. The product
of these two numbers is the expected impact of the risk.
• The expected impact of a risk (E) is calculated as E = P * I,
where:
• P = Probability of the risk becoming a problem and
• I= Impact in terms of money if the risk becomes a problem.
• Once the expected impact of each risk is identified, the risks
should be prioritized by the expected impact and the degree
to which the expected impact can be reduced. While guess
work will constitute a major role in producing these
numbers, precision is not important. What will be important
is to identify the risk, and determine the risk's order of
magnitude.
 Minimize Expected Impact
• Once the most important risks are identified try to eliminate each risk. For
risks that cannot be eliminated, reduce the probability that the risk will
become a problem and the financial impact should that happen.
• Minimizing expected impact involves a combination of the following three
strategies:
• Eliminate the Risk: While this is not always possible or desirable, there are
situations where the best strategy will be simply to eliminate the risk
altogether. For example, reducing the scope of a system, or deciding not to
use the latest unproven technology are ways to eliminate certain risks
altogether.
• Reduce the Probability of a Risk Becoming a Problem: Most strategies will
fall into this category. Inspections and testing are examples of approaches
that reduce, but do not eliminate, the probability of problems.
• Reduce the Impact if there is a Problem: In some situations, the risk can
not be eliminated, and even when the probability of a problem is low, the
expected impact is high. In these cases, the best strategy may be to
explore ways to reduce the impact if there is a problem. Contingency plans
and disaster recovery plans would be examples of this strategy.
 Reliability
• Reliability refers to the consistency of
a measure.
• A test is considered reliable if we get the same
result repeatedly.
• It is the capability parts, component,
equipment,
of products and systems to
perform their required function for desired
period of time without failure, in specified
environments.
 Factors Affecting Reliability

• System structure(complexity of product)

• Component reliability
• Manufacturing process
• Deficiencies in material
• Errors in Assembly
• Environmental Conditions
ᵞ
• Operation and maintenance
 Failure Rate

Numbers of item fail

Failure rate (λ)= total test hour of all items
It gives the
probability for a item to fail in
unit time.
 MTTF (mean time to failure)
• MTBF (Mean time between failure) is the average time between
failure of equipment.
• MTTF (mean time to failure) is the expected time to failure of a
system.
• MTTF is the average time of manufacturer estimates
before a failure occurs in a part or equipment
• It is reciprocal of failure rate:
θ=1/ λ
• Some times It is more convenient to specify
reliability of product in terms of MTTF rather
than reliability itself. Because product life is
always associated with reliability but in case of
MTTF is free from product life it gives the
information about next failure
• MTTR: mean time to repair, is the time taken
to repair failed equipment.
• Availability:
MTBF
• A=
MTBF+MTTR
 Bathtub curve
• The bathtub curve is widely used in reliability engineering. The
bathtub curve is generated by mapping the rate of early "infant
mortality" failures when first introduced, the rate of random
failures with constant failure rate during its "useful life", and finally
the rate of "wear out" failures as the product exceeds its design
lifetime.
• It describes a particular form of the hazard function which
comprises three parts:
• The first part is a increasing failure rateThe first part is a increasing
failure rate, known as early failures.
• The second part is a constant failure rate, known as random
failures.
• The third part is an increasing failure rate, known as wear-out
failures.
The reliability bathtub curve
• Infant mortality
• Referred to burn in period .initial life of product
when early failure occur due to defects in
manufacturing , heat treatment, raw material.
• Useful life
• Normally operating period ,nearly constant.
• End of life
• and finally the rate of "wear out" failures as the
product exceeds its design lifetime.
 Design for Reliability
1. Derating
2. Control environment
3. Burning in or running in
4. Redundancy
 Continue…

Availability
Availability of the module is the percentage of time
when system is operational.
Availability of hardware and software module is
obtained by
A=MTBF/MTBF+MTT
Availability is typically specified in nine notation.
As 3 nine means Availability 99.9%.5 nine
means
99.999%
 Product reliability aspects
• The concept of "QUALITY" is closely linked that of
to reliability.

• Quality is a static concept because it deals with how

closely the product adheres to the given specification and
customer requirements.

• Testing and testability are other important issue than

concerns reliability engineers.
Advantage of evaluating reliability
 Availability
• Availability is defined as the probability that
the system is operating properly when it is
requested for use.
• In other words, availability is the
probability that a system is not failed or
undergoing a repair action when it needs to
be used.
• At first glance, it might seem that if a
system has a high availability then it should
also have a high reliability.
• As stated earlier, availability represents the
probability that the system is capable of
conducting its required function when it is
called upon given that it is not failed or
undergoing a repair action.
• Therefore, not only is availability a function
of reliability, but it is also a function
of maintainability.
 MTTF
• MTTF (mean time to failure) is the expected time to
failure of a system. Non-repairable systems can fail only
once. Therefore, for a non-repairable system, MTTF is
equivalent to the mean of its failure time distribution.
Repairable systems can fail several times. In general, it
takes more time for the first failure to occur than it
does for subsequent failures to occur. Therefore, MTTF
for a repairable system can represent one of two
things:
• (1) the mean time to first failure (MTTFF) or
• (2) the mean uptime (MUT) within a failure-repair cycle
in a long run.
 Zero Defects
• Zero Defects" is Step 7 of "Philip Crosby's 14 Step Quality
Improvement Process" . Although applicable to any type of
enterprise, it has been primarily adopted within industry
supply chains wherever large volumes of components are
being purchased (common items such as nuts and bolts are
good examples).
• Zero Defects was a quality control program originated by the
Denver Division of the Martin Marietta Corporation (now
Lockheed Martin) on the Titan Missile program, which carried
the Project Gemini astronauts into space in the middle to late
1960s.
 Principles of Zero Defects
• The principles of the methodology are four-fold:
1. Quality is conformance to requirements
• Every product or service has a requirement: a description of
what the customer needs.
• When a particular product meets that requirement, it
has achieved quality, provided that the requirement
accurately describes what the enterprise and the customer
actually need.
• This technical sense should not be confused with more
common usages that indicate weight or goodness or
precious materials or some absolute idealized standard. In
common parlance, an inexpensive disposable pen is a
lower-quality item than a gold-plated fountain pen. In the
technical sense of Zero Defects, the inexpensive disposable
pen is a quality product if it meets requirements: it writes,
does not skip nor clog under normal use, and lasts the time
specified.
2. Defect prevention is preferable to quality inspection
and correction
The second principle is based on the observation that it
is nearly always less troublesome, more certain and
less expensive to prevent defects than to discover and
correct them.
3. Zero Defects is the quality standard
The third is based on the normative nature of
requirements: if a requirement expresses what is
genuinely needed, then any unit that does not meet
requirements will not satisfy the need and is no good.
If units that do not meet requirements actually do
satisfy the need, then the requirement should be
changed to reflect reality.
4. Quality is measured in monetary terms – the Price
of Non-conformance (PONC)

• The fourth principle is key to the methodology. Philip

Crosby believes that every defect represents a cost, which is
often hidden. These costs include inspection time, rework,
wasted material and labour, lost revenue and the cost of
customer dissatisfaction. When properly identified and
accounted for, the magnitude of these costs can be made
apparent, which has three advantages. First, it provides a
cost-justification for steps to improve quality. The title of
the book, "Quality is free," expresses the belief that
improvements in quality will return savings more than
equal to the costs. Second, it provides a way to measure
progress, which is essential to maintaining management
commitment and to rewarding employees. Third, by making
the goal measurable, actions can be made concrete and
decisions can be made on the basis of relative return.
• While Zero Defects began in the aerospace and
defense industry, started at Martin Marietta in
the 1960s, thirty years later it was regenerated in
the automotive world. During the 1990s, large
companies in the automotive industry tried to cut
costs by reducing their quality inspection
processes and demanding that their suppliers
dramatically improve the quality of their supplies.
This eventually resulted in demands for the "Zero
Defects" standard. It is implemented all over the
world.
 Quality circle
• A quality circle is a volunteer is a volunteer group
composed of workers is a volunteer group
composed of workers (or even students), usually
under the leadership of their supervisor (but they
can elect a team leader), who are trained to
identify, analyze and solve work-related problems
and present their solutions to management in
order to improve the performance of the
organization, and motivate and enrich the work
of employees. When matured, true quality circles
become self-managing, having gained the
confidence of management.
• They are formal groups. They meet at least once a
week on company time and are trained by competent
persons (usually designated as facilitators) who may be
personnel and industrial relations specialists trained in
human factors and the basic skills of problem
identification, information gathering and analysis, basic
statistics, and solution generation.[1] Quality circles are
generally free to select any topic they wish (other than
those related to salary and terms and conditions of
work, as there are other channels through which these
issues are usually considered).[2
• Quality circles were first established in JapanQuality
circles were first established in Japan in 1962; Kaoru
Ishikawa has been credited with their creation. The
movement in Japan was coordinated by the Japanese
Union of Scientists and Engineers (JUSE). The first
circles were established at the Nippon Wireless and
Telegraph Company but then spread to more than 35
other companies in the first year.[5] By 1978 it was
claimed that there were more than one million quality
circles involving some 10 million Japanese workers.
[citation needed]
They are now in most East Asian countries;
it was recently claimed that there were more than 20
million quality circles in China
QC commonly use certain Basic techniques-
• Brainstorming
• Pareto analysis
• Cause and effect diagram
• Check sheet
• Histogram
• Stratification
• Control charts