SELALE UNIVERSITY

College Of Natural Science

Department Computer Science
Course Tile:- Computer organization and Architecture
(COA)
Lecture 1-Chapter1

Instructor:- Zerihun T.
E-mail:- [email protected]

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 Digital
Computers
A Digital computer can be considered as a digital system
that performs various computational tasks.
By convention, the digital computers use the binary number system, which
has two digits: 0 and 1. A binary digit is called a bit.
A computer system is subdivided into two functional entities: Hardware and
Software.
The hardware consists of all the electronic components and
electromechanical devices that comprise the physical entity of the device.
The software of the computer consists of the instructions and data that the
computer manipulates to perform various data-processing tasks.

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The Central Processing Unit (CPU) contains an arithmetic and logic unit for
manipulating data, a number of registers for storing data, and a control circuit for
fetching and executing instructions.
 The memory unit of a digital computer contains storage for instructions and data.
 The Random Access Memory (RAM) for real-time processing of the data
 The Input-Output
.
devces for generating inputs from the user and displaying the final
results to the user.
 The Input-Output devices connected to the computer include the keyboard, mouse,
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terminals, magnetic disk drives, and other communication devices
 Introduction to Logic Gates
• We will introduce Boolean algebra and logic gates
• Logic gates are the building blocks of digital circuits

Logic Variables
In electronic circuits the two values can be represented by e.g.,
High voltage for a 1 >>on>>True>> 5volts
Low voltage for a 0>>off>>False>>0 volts
Note that since only 2 voltage levels are used, the circuits have greater
immunity to electrical noise 4
 Logic Gates
• Basic logic circuits with one or more inputs and one output are
known as gates
• Gates are used as the building blocks in the design of more complex
digital logic circuits
Representing of Logic Function
There are several ways of representing logic functions:
Symbols to represent the gates
Truth tables
Boolean algebra
We will now describe commonly used gates
5
Boolean expressions
Uses Boolean algebra, a mathematical notation for expressing two-
valued logic
Logic diagrams
A graphical representation of a circuit; each gate has its own symbol
Truth tables
A table showing all possible input value and the associated output values

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 Gates
Seven types of gates
NOT
AND
OR
XOR
NAND
NOR
ENOR

 A buffer, is a basic logic gate that passes its input, unchanged, to its output.
 A buffer has one input and one output; its output always equals its input

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 NOT Gate
A NOT gate accepts one input signal (0 or 1) and returns the opposite signal as
output

=A

• A NOT gate is also called an ‘inverter’

• X is only TRUE if A is FALSE
• Circle (or ‘bubble’) on the output of a gate implies that it as an inverting (or
complemented) output
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 AND Gate
An AND gate accepts two input signals.If both are 1, the output is 1; otherwise,
the output is 0

• In Boolean algebra AND is represented by a dot

.
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 OR Gate
An OR gate accepts two input signals. If both are 0, the output is 0; otherwise,
the output is 1

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 NAND (NOT AND ) Gate

The NAND gate accepts two input signals. If both are 1, the output is 0;
otherwise, the output is 1

X =+

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 NOR (NOT OR ) Gate

The NOR gate accepts two input signals . If both are 0, the output is 1;
otherwise, the output is 0

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 XOR Gate
 An XOR gate accepts two input signals If both are the same, the output is 0;
otherwise, the output is 1
Note the difference between the XOR gate and the OR gate;
they differ only in one input situation
When both input signals are 1, the OR gate produces a 1 and the XOR produces a 0
 XOR is called the exclusive OR

X=
X=(A+B).()
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 EXNOR gate
 The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate circuit does the opposite to the EOR gate.
 If both are the same, the output is 1; otherwise, the output is 1
 It will give a low output if either, but not both, of its two inputs are high. The symbol is an
EXOR gate with a small circle on the output.
 The small circle represents inversion.

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 Review of Gate Processing
 A NOT gate inverts its single input
 An AND gate produces 1 if both input values are 1
 An OR gate produces 0 if both input values are 0
 An XOR gate produces 0 if input values are the same
 A NAND gate produces 0 if both inputs are 1
 A NOR gate produces a 1 if both inputs are 0
 An ENOR the output is 1 if input values are the same

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Boolean algebra
Boolean algebra can be considered as an algebra that deals with binary
variables and logic operations. Boolean algebraic variables are designated by
letters such as A, B, x, and y.
The basic operations performed are AND, OR, and complement.

The Boolean algebraic functions are mostly expressed with binary variables,
logic operation symbols, parentheses, and equal sign.
For a given value of variables, the Boolean function can be either 1 or 0.
For instance, consider the Boolean function:
The relationship between Boolean function its binary variable can be
represented in a truth table.
 To represent function in the truth table we need a list of combination of the
of the n binary ,where n is a number of variables. 16
 Boolean algebra
 For instance, consider the Boolean function:

F = x + y'z
1.List The truth Table
2.Draw he logic Diagram
 The Boolean function F = x + y'z is transformed from an algebraic expression
into a logic AND, OR, and inverter gates.
 Inverter at input 'y' generates its complement y'.
 There is an AND gate for the term y'z, and an OR gate is used to combine the
two terms (x and y'z).

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Example of Boolean Function
The truth table for the Boolean function F = x + y'z can be represented as:

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Boolean Algebra

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Simplified Form of Boolean Function(Logic Minimization)
• Any Boolean function can be implemented directly using
combinational logic (gates)
• However, simplifying the Boolean function will enable the number of
gates required to be reduced. Techniques available include:
– Algebraic manipulation (as seen in examples)
– Karnaugh (K) mapping (a visual approach)
• K mapping is the preferred technique for up to about 5 variables


Description of Kmaps and Terminology
A Kmap is a matrix consisting of rows and columns that represent the output values
of a Boolean function.
 The output values placed in each cell are derived from the minterms of a Boolean
function.
 A minterm is a product term that contains all of the function’s variables exactly once,
either complemented or not complemented. 20
 Minterms
 Consider variables A and B
 Assume that they are somehow combined with AND operator
 There are 4 possible combinations AB, A' B, AB ' , A' B '
 Each of those terms is called a minterm (standard product)
 In general, if there are n variables, there are 2n minterms
Dec. Rep Designatio
List the minterms for 3 variables A B C Minterm
n
0 0 0 0 A ' B ' C'

1 0 0 1 A'B'C

2 0 1 0 A ' B C'

3 0 1 1 A'B C

4 1 0 0 A B ' C'

5 1 0 1 A B'C

6 1 1 0 A B C'
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 Karnaugh maps(K-map)
A K-map is a collection of squares
• Each square represents a minterm
• The collection of squares is a graphical representation of a Boolean function
• Adjacent squares differ in the value of one variable
• Alternative algebraic expressions for the same function are derived by
recognizing patterns of squares (corresponding to cubes)
B BC
0 1 00 01 11 10 m0 m1 m3 m2
A m0 m1 A m0 m1 m3 m2
0 0
m4 m5 m7 m6
m2 m3 1 m4 m5 m7 m6
1
m12 m13 m15 m14
2 variables 3 variables Karnaugh map m8 m9 m11 m10
Cell = 23=8
4 variables Karnaugh map 22
 K-maps Paring
• Having plotted the minterms, how do we use the map to give a
simplified expression?
• Group terms
• Having size equal to a power of 2, e.g., 2, 4, 8, etc.
• Large groups best since they contain fewer variables
• Groups can wrap around edges and corners BC
A 00 01 11 10
• Now we will look at a more complicated example.
0
F = m0 + m2 + m4 + m5 + m6
1

F = z’ + x y’
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 Example
• Express F in the sum of minterms
'
F  A  BC
' ' ' ' '
F  A  BC  A( B  B )(C  C )  ( A  A ) BC
' ' ' ' ' ' '
 ABC  ABC  AB C  AB C  ABC  A BC
 ABC  ABC '  AB 'C  AB 'C '  A' BC '
m7  m6  m5  m4  m2
 2,4,5,6,7 
The highest has function has highest minterm 7 so can be mapped to three
BC
variable which is greater that 7 00 01 11 10
A m0 m1 m3 m2
0
F=Red+Blue 1 m4 M5 m7 m6

=A+BC’ 24
 Example: Let YZ
00 01 11 10
X
 F (x, y, z) = m (2, 3, 6,
7) 0
1

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 Example: Simplify and Draw the truth table
 F (x, y, z) = m (1, 2, 3, 5, 7)

YZ
00 01 11 10
X
DEC X y Z
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
2 0 1 1 1
3 1 1 1
4 1 0 0
5 1 0 1
6 1 1 0
7 1 1 1
F(x, y, z) =z +x y’

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Sample Problems
Try making a truth table and k-map to reduce the following expressions.
1. F= m3 + m4 + m6 + m7
2. F= x’z + x’y + x y’z + y z
3. F (x, y, z) = m (2, 3, 4, 5)
4. F (x, y, z) = m (3, 4, 6, 7)

Solutions
1. y z + x z’
2. z + x’y
3. F (x, y, z) = x’ y + x y’
4. F (x, y, z) = y z + x z’
Conclusion
• Kmaps provide an easy graphical method of simplifying Boolean
expressions.
• A Kmap is a matrix consisting of the outputs of the minterms of a
Boolean function.
• In this section, we have discussed 2- 3- and 4-input Kmaps. This
method can be extended to any number of inputs through the use of
multiple tables.

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 Combinational Circuits
 A combinational circuit comprises of logic gates whose outputs at any time are
determined directly from the present combination of inputs without
any regard to previous inputs.
 A combinational circuit performs a specific information-processing operation
fully specified logically by a set of Boolean functions.
 The basic components of a combinational circuit are: input variables, logic
gates, and output variables.

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 Combinational Circuits
 The basic components of a combinational circuit are: input variables, logic gates, and output
variables
 The 'n' input variables come from an external source whereas the 'm' output variables go to an
external destination. In many applications, the source or destination are storage registers.

Design procedure of a Combinational Circuit

1) The problem is stated.

2) The total number of available input variables and required output variables is determined are
assigned letter symbol.
3) The exact truth table that defines the required relationships between inputs and outputs is
derived.
4) The simplified Boolean function is obtained from each output.
5) The logic diagram is drawn.
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 Combinational Circuits
1.Example :-Design a combinational logic circuit that adds two one-bit binary numbers(AB) the out put is the sum of two bits (S)
and the carry (C)?
Solution
1st and 2nd Step
 The Input are A and B the output are S and C. A and B are one bit binary number so 0 and 1
The out put is the sum’s least significant of two digit (A and B) C is The Carry

 Binary Addition follows these same basic rules as for the denary addition above except in
binary there are only two digits with the largest digit being “1”. So when adding binary
numbers, a carry out is generated when the “SUM” equals or is greater than two (1+1) and
this becomes a “CARRY” bit for any subsequent addition being passed over to the next
column forrdaddition and so on. Consider the single bit addition below .
3 step Truth Table

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 Combinational Circuits
Solution
4th Step
Then the Boolean expression is as follows.
For the SUM bit: SUM = A XOR B = A ⊕ B
For the CARRY bit: CARRY = A AND B = A.B

Final Step
The Logic Diagram as follows

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 Block Diagram Sequential Circuit

• A Sequential logic circuits is a form of the binary circuit; its design employs one or
more in more outputs, whose states are related to some definite rules that
depend on previous s inputs and outputs can reach either of the two states:
logic 0 (low) or logic 1 (high).
Present
Present

Past output

 Example Counter Decimal Current Output 1 then the it stores the pervious
output 1+1=2,2+1=3 3+1=4, 5,6….. Therefore, we need memory elements and
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uses to store the output
 Introduction to Sequential Circuits
• A Sequential circuit contains:
– Storage elements: Inputs Outputs
Combina-tional
Latches or Flip-Flops
Logic
– Combinational Logic: Storage

• Implements a multiple-output switching function

Elements
Next
• Inputs are signals from the outside. State State
• Outputs are signals to the outside.
• Other inputs, State or Present State, are signals from
storage elements.
• The remaining outputs, Next State are inputs to storage
elements.
Key Combinational Circuit Sequential Circuit
Definition Combinational Circuit is the type of circuit in On other hand Sequential circuit is the type of circuit where output
which output is independent of time and only not only relies on the current input but also depends on the previous
relies on the input present at that particular output.
instant.
Feedback In Combinational circuit as output does not On other hand in case of Sequential circuit output relies on its
depend on the time instant, no feedback is previous feedback so output of previous input is being transferred
required for its next output generation. as feedback used with input for next output generation.

Performance As the input of current instant is only On other hand Sequential circuit are comparatively slower
required in case of Combinational circuit, and has low performance as compared to that of
it is faster and better in performance as Combinational circuit.
compared to that of Sequential circuit.

Complexity No implementation of feedback makes However on other hand implementation of feedback makes
the combinational circuit less complex as sequential circuit more complex as compared to
compared to sequential circuit. combinational circuit.
Elementary Elementary building blocks for On other hand building blocks for sequential circuit are flip
Blocks combinational circuit are logic gates. flops..
Operation Combinational circuit are mainly used for On other hand Sequential circuit is mainly used for storing
arithmetic as well as Boolean operations. data.
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Latches
• Latches are basic storage elements that operate with signal levels .
• Latches controlled by a clock transition are flip-flops.
• Latches are level-sensitive devices.
• Latches are useful for the design of the asynchronous sequential
circuit ( clockless, or self-timed circuit).
LATCHES AND FLIP-FLOP
There are two types of memory elements based on the type of triggering that is
suitable to operate it.
1.Latches
2.Flip-flops
Latches operate with enable signal, which is level sensitive. Whereas,
flip-flops are edge sensitive.
Example Needing Bit Storage 3.2

• Flight attendant call button Call Blue light

button
– Press call: light turns on Bit
Storage
Cancel
• Stays on after button released button
1. Call button pressed – light turns on
– Press cancel: light turns off
Call Blue light
– Logic gate circuit to implement this? x y x∙y
button
Bit
Storage
0 0 0 Cancel
Call 0 1 0
button

Q 2. Call button released – light stays on

Cancel 1 0 0
Call Blue light
1 1 1
Doesn’t work. Q=1 when Call=1, but
a button
Bit

doesn’t stay 1 when Call returns to 0 Cancel

Storage

button

Need some form of “feedback” in the circuit x x x

Example A simple memory element with NOT Gates 3. Cancel button pressed – light turns off
Two Different Ways to Draw the Same Circuit
SR Latch is also called as Set Reset Latch
Bit Storage Using an SR Latch S (set) SR latch

• Does the circuit to the right, with cross-coupled NOR gates, do what we want?
NOR Gate
• SR latch can serve as bit storage in example of Q
A B Y R (reset)
– Reset(Call)=1: sets Q to 1
0 0 1 • Q stays 1 even after Reset(Call)= 0
0 1 0 – Set (Cancel)=1 : resets Q to 0
1 0 0
1 1 0 Store:-S=0 Q= 1 R=0 Q’= 0
Case-II:-S=1 R=0 Q= 1 Q’= 0
Case-I:-S=0 R=1 Q= 1 Q’= 0 Store:-S=0 Q’= 0 R=0 Q= 0
S=0 Q S=0 S=1 Q S=0 Q
t tQ Q
t Q
t
1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1

1 1 0 0
0 Q 0 Q 1 1
Q Q Recall…
R=1 R=0 R=0 R=0
0
1 1
S 0
0
R1 1
0 a
0
t 1
Q X
0
1
Q
0
 Problem with SR Latch NOR Gate
A B Y
• Problem 0 0 1
– If S=1 and R=1 simultaneously, 0 1 0
– we don’t know what value Q will take 1 0 0
1 1 1 0
S=1 Qt S=0 Qt S=0 Qt S
0
1
SR Latch Truth Table NOR Gate
0 1 0
0 0 1 R
0 S R Q a Q’b
1
Q
t
0
0 Q
0
1 Q
1
0 Q 0
0 0 Memory (As before)

R=1 R=0 R=0

1 0 1 0 1
Q
0 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 (Not Used
1
Qt
0 SR Latch Truth Table NAND Gate
1
Q S R Q a Q’b
 Q may oscillate. Then, because one
0

0 0 Not Used
path will be slightly longer than the 0 1 1 0
other, Q will eventually settle to 1 or 0 1 0 0 1
– but we don’t know which. 1 1 Memory (As before)
Flip-Flops
• They are memory elements
• They can store binary information
• Can keep a binary state until an input signal to switch the state is received
• There are different types of flip-flops depending on the number of inputs and
how the inputs affect the binary state

1 0 1

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Edge-Triggered Flip-Flops
• Trigger the flip-flop only during a signal transition

Clock period: time interval between pulses

Above signal: period = 20 ns
Clock cycle: one such time interval
Above signal shows 3.5 clock cycles
Clock frequency: 1/period
Above signal: frequency = 1 / 20 ns = 50 MHz
1 Hz = 1/s

Flip-Flops Works when the triggered pulse and positive edge

Basic Flip-Flop Descriptors
• Used in analysis
– Characteristic table - defines the next state of the flip-flop in terms of flip-
flop inputs and current state
– Characteristic equation - defines the next state of the flip-flop as a
Boolean function of the flip-flop inputs and the current state
• Used in design
– Excitation table - defines the flip-flop input variable values as function of
the current state and next state

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 S-R Flip-Flop Descriptors S
Q(t)=Present state Q(t+1)Next State Q

Clk
• Characteristic table -
Characteristic Table
defines the next Q

state of the flip- R

flop in terms of Circuit

flip-flop inputs and
current state

Graphical Symbol
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Edge-Triggered D Flip-Flop
 The D flip-flop is a modification of the clocked SR flip-flop.
The D input goes directly into the S input and the complement
of the D input goes to the R input. The D input is sampled
during the occurrence of a clock pulse. If it is 1, the flip-flop is
switched to the set state (unless it was already set). If it is 0, the
flip-flop switches to the clear state.

Circuit

Graphical Symbol
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JK Flip-Flop
J
D Q Q
K Q Q

Clock

(a) Circuit

J K Q (t + 1)
0 0 Q (t) J Q
0 1 0
1 0 1
K Q
1 1 Q (t )

(b) Truth table (c) Graphical symbol

T Flip-Flop Descriptors
Toggle

Characteristic Table
T Q(t+1) Operation

0 Q(t) No change
1 Q(t) Complement Circuit

J Q
T
K Q

Graphical Symbol
Questions

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates 48