Chapter - 3

The first law of thermodynamics

1
Learning objectives
• By the end of this chapter you will be able to:
• Classify types of energy in thermodynamic analysis.
• State the first law of thermodynamics.
• Do energy balance analysis for a closed system.
• Write moving boundary work for different processes.
• Develop a relation between internal energy (u), enthalpy (h) and specific
heats (cp and cv) for ideal gases and for liquids and solids.
• Do energy balance analysis for open systems (control volume system).
• Define flow work and energy of flowing fluid.
• Energy analysis of steady flow process.
• Energy analysis of unsteady flow process.
2
Introduction
static dynamic

They are the only forms in which energy

can cross the boundaries of a closed
system
Forms of energy
• Energy exist in numerous forms such as : Thermal, Mechanical, kinetic,
potential, electric, magnetic, nuclear and the summation of all is called
the total energy.
• In the study of thermodynamics energy is grouped as macroscopic and
microscopic.
• Macroscopic : An energy a system posses as a whole with respect to
some outside reference frame. E.g. kinetic and potential energy
• Microscopic : Energy of a system related to molecular structure of a
system and degree of molecular activities. E.g. molecular kinetic energy,
chemical energy, latent energy. The summation of all microscopic energy
is called internal energy (U).
Forms of energy
• Magnetic, electric, surface tension and gravitational effects are
significant in some specialized cases only and are often neglected.
• Therefore the total energy of a simple compressible system is given by

• In most cases closed systems are considered stationary i.e , and the
change in total energy is reduced to change in internal energy
Forms of energy
• Control volumes typically involve fluid flow for long periods of time.
And it is convenient to express the energy flow associated with a fluid
stream in the rate form.

Mass flow rate

(Kg/s)
Mechanical energy
• The mechanical energy can be defined as the form of energy that
can be converted to mechanical work completely and directly by an
ideal mechanical device such as an ideal turbine.
• A pump transfers mechanical energy to a fluid by raising its
pressure, and a turbine extracts mechanical energy from a fluid by
dropping its pressure.
• pressure force acting on a fluid through a distance produces work,
called flow work, in the amount of P/ρ per unit mass.
• mechanical energy of a flowing fluid

(kJ/kg)
 Mechanical energy
• It can also be expressed in rate form as
(kW)

• Then the mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible

(ρ = constant) flow becomes
(kJ/kg)

( )
2 2
˙ 𝑚𝑒𝑐 =𝑚 𝑃 2 − 𝑃1 𝑉 − 𝑉 2 1
∆𝐸 ˙ + +𝑔 ( 𝑧 2 − 𝑧(kW)
1)
𝜌 2
Energy transfer by
heat
• Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between
two systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a
temperature difference.
• Heat is energy in transition. It is recognized only as it crosses the
boundary of a system.

• A process during which there is no

heat transfer is called an adiabatic
process.
• Thermal equilibrium
• Insulation
Energy transfer by
heat
• The amount of heat transferred during the process between two
states (states 1 and 2) is denoted by Q12, or just Q.
• Heat transfer per unit mass of a system is denoted q and is
determined from
kJ/kg

• The heat transfer rate is denoted by

kJ
 Energy transfer by
•work
Energy interaction that is not caused by a temperature difference
between a system and its surroundings is work.
• More specifically, work is the energy transfer associated with a force
acting through a distance.
• The work done during a process between states 1 and 2 is denoted
by W12, or simply W. The work done per unit mass of a system is
denoted by w and is expressed as
kJ/kg
• The work done per unit time is called power.
kW
• Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the complete
description of a heat or work interaction requires the specification of
both the magnitude and direction.

• Generally accepted sign convention:

• heat transfer to a system and work done
by a system are positive;
• heat transfer from a system and work
done on a system are negative.
• Heat and work are energy transfer
mechanisms between a system and its
surroundings, and there are many similarities
between them:
1. Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross
the boundaries. That is, both heat and work are boundary
phenomena.
2. Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.
3. Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike properties,
heat or work has no meaning at a state.
4. Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path
followed during a process as well as the end states).
• Path functions have inexact differentials designated by the symbol δ
• Exact differentials designated by the symbol d
Boundary work
• The work associated with a moving
boundary is called boundary work.
• Moving boundary work is the primary form
of work involved in automobile engines.
• The boundary work in real engines or
compressors is determined by direct
measurements.
• A quasi-equilibrium process, also called a quasistatic process, is
closely approximated by real engines, especially when the
piston moves at low velocities.
• If the piston is allowed to move a distance ds
in a quasi-equilibrium manner, the
differential work done during this process is

𝛿𝑊 𝑏= 𝐹𝑑𝑠=𝑃𝐴𝑑𝑠= 𝑃𝑑𝑉
• P is always positive
• dV is positive for expansion (work done
by system; Wout)
• dV is negative for compression (work A gas does a differential
done on the system; Win) amount of work δWb as
it forces the piston to
• The moving boundary work is also called the move by a differential
PdV work. amount ds.
• The total boundary work done during the entire process as the
piston moves is obtained by adding all the differential works from
the initial state to the final state
2
𝑊 𝑏 =∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉kJ
1

The area under P-V graph

indicates the boundary work
2 2
𝐴=∫ 𝑑𝐴 =∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
1 1
• This integral can be evaluated only if we know the functional
relationship between P and V during the process. That is, P = f(V)
should be available.
2
𝑊 𝑏=∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉kJ
1
Isobaric process
2
𝑊 1 − 2 =∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉
1

2
𝑊 1 − 2= 𝑃 ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃 ( 𝑉 2 −𝑉 1 )
1
Isometric / Isochoric process
2
𝑊 1 − 2 =∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉
1

2
𝑊 1 − 2=∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 0
1

Isothermal process 𝑃 𝑉
𝑃 1 𝑉 1= 𝑃
𝑃 2𝑉 =
2
1 1
𝑉
2 2 2
𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑊 1 − 2=∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 =∫ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃 1 𝑉 1∫ 𝑑𝑉
1 1 𝑉 1

( )
𝑊 1 − 2=𝑃 1 𝑉 1 ln
𝑉2
𝑉1
Polytropic process
• During actual expansion and compression processes of gases,
pressure and volume are often related by PVn = C, where n and C
are constants. A process of this kind is called a polytropic process
−𝑛
𝑃=𝐶 𝑉
2 2
𝑊 1 − 2=∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 =∫ 𝐶 𝑉
−𝑛
𝑑𝑉
1 1
−𝑛 +1 −𝑛 +1
𝑉2 −𝑉 1 𝑃2𝑉 2− 𝑃1𝑉 1
𝑊 1 − 2=𝐶 =
− 𝑛+1 1− 𝑛
The first law of
thermodynamics
• The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the conservation
of energy principle, provides a sound basis for studying the
relationships among the various forms of energy and energy
interactions.
• Experimentally its observed that during an adiabatic process
between two specified states 1 and 2, of a closed system, the net
work done is the same regardless of the nature of the closed
system and the details of the process.
• Considering that the net work is the same for all the value of the
net work must depend on the end states of the system only, and
thus it must correspond to a change in a property of the system.
• This property is the total energy.
The first law of
thermodynamics
• The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the
system during a process is equal to the difference between the
total energy entering and the total energy leaving the system
during that process.

𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 =∆ 𝐸 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡

 The first law of
thermodynamics

LHS RHS

𝐸𝑖𝑛−𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡=(𝑄𝑖𝑛−𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡)+(𝑊 𝑖𝑛−𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡)+(𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠,𝑖𝑛−𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠,𝑜𝑢𝑡)
 Energy analysis of
closed system

For a cycle ΔE = 0, thus Q = W

 Energy balance for
closed
• The energysystem
balance relation in that case for a closed system
becomes
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 , 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑊 𝑛𝑒𝑡 , 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆ 𝐸 𝑠𝑦𝑠
𝑄
or − 𝑊 = ∆ 𝐸 𝑠𝑦𝑠
• For a closed system undergoing a cycle
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 =𝑊˙ 𝑛𝑒𝑡 , 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑊
𝑄 ˙ 𝑛𝑒𝑡 , 𝑜𝑢
, 𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑒𝑡 , 𝑜𝑢𝑡
Example:

A piston–cylinder device contains 25 g of saturated water vapor that is

maintained at a constant pressure of 300 kPa. A resistance heater within
the cylinder is turned on and passes a current of 0.2 A for 5 min from a
120-V source. At the same time, a heat loss of 3.7 kJ occurs.
(a) Show that for a closed system the boundary work Wb and the change
in internal energy ΔU in the first-law relation can be combined into
one term, ΔH, for a constant-pressure process.
(b) Determine the final temperature of the steam.
Specific heats
• The specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree.
• In general, this energy depends on how the process is executed
(at constant volume or at constant pressure).

• The specific heat at constant

pressure cp is always greater than cv
because at constant pressure the
system is allowed to expand, and
the energy for this expansion work
must also be supplied to the system.
Specific heats
• Now we try to express the specific heats in terms of other
thermodynamic properties.
• Consider a fixed mass stationary closed system undergoing a
constant volume heating process; the differential energy
balance will be given by;
𝛿 𝑞 − 𝛿 𝑤= 𝑑𝑢
From the definition of cv heat added
Therefore cv can be defined in terms of u and T as
𝑐 𝑣 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑑𝑢
𝑐 𝑣=
𝜕 𝑢
𝜕 𝑇 ( ) 𝑣
Specific heats
• Similarly for a constant pressure heating of a stationary closed
system the differential energy balance will be;
𝛿 𝑞 − 𝛿 𝑤= 𝑑𝑢
𝛿 𝑞 − 𝑃𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑢
𝛿 𝑞 = 𝑑𝑢+ 𝑃𝑑𝑣
h =𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣
𝑑h =𝑑𝑢 + 𝑃𝑑𝑣 +𝑣𝑑𝑃
𝛿 𝑞 = 𝑑h
From the definition of cp,
𝑐 𝑝 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑑h
𝑐𝑝= ( 𝜕 h
𝜕𝑇 ) 𝑃
Internal energy, entropy and
specific heats of ideal gas
• Ideal gases obey the ideal gas equation of state ;
𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
• for an ideal gas the internal energy is a functions of the
temperature only. That is,
𝑢 =𝑢 ( 𝑇 )
• Using the definition of enthalpy and the equation of state of an
ideal gas, we have

Therefore;
h =h ( 𝑇 )
Internal energy, entropy and
specific heats of ideal gas
• Since u and h depend only on temperature for an ideal gas, the
specific heats cv and cp also depend, at most, on temperature only.

𝑑𝑢=𝑐 𝑣 ( 𝑇 ) 𝑑𝑇
𝑑h =𝑐 𝑃 ( 𝑇 ) 𝑑𝑇
• The change in internal energy or enthalpy for an ideal gas during a
process from state 1 to state 2 is determined by integrating these
equations:
2 2

∆ 𝑢=∫ 𝑐 𝑣 ( 𝑇 ∆ h=∫ 𝑐 𝑃 ( 𝑇 ) 𝑑𝑇
) 𝑑𝑇
1 1
Internal energy, entropy and
specific heats of ideal gas
• Having the functional relation of the specific heats with
temperature, performing the integration provides accurate values
of and , but its tedious and inconvenient for hand calculation.

• The other alternatives are;

1. Using tabulated data: This is the easiest and most accurate
way when tables are readily available.

∆ 𝑢=𝑢 2 − 𝑢 1
∆ h= h2 − h1
Internal energy, entropy and
specific heats of ideal gas
2. By using average specific heats: This is very simple and
certainly very convenient when property tables are not
available. The results obtained are reasonably accurate if the
temperature interval is not very large.
∆ 𝑢=𝑐 𝑣 𝑎𝑣 ( 𝑇 2 − 𝑇 1 )
∆ h= 𝑐 𝑃 𝑎𝑣 ( 𝑇 2 − 𝑇 1 )
Where 𝑇2+ 𝑇1
𝑇 𝑎𝑣 =
𝑐 𝑣 ,𝑎𝑣 =𝑐 𝑣 @ 𝑇 𝑎𝑣
2
𝑐 𝑃 ,𝑎𝑣 =𝑐 𝑃 @ 𝑇 𝑎𝑣
Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases
A special relationship between cp and cv for ideal gases can be
obtained by differentiating the relation
𝑑h =𝑑𝑢 + 𝑅𝑑𝑇
𝑑h =𝑐 𝑃 𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑢=𝑐 𝑣 𝑑𝑇
𝑐 𝑃 =𝑐 𝑣 +𝑘𝐽
𝑅 / 𝑘𝑔𝐾
𝑐 𝑃 =𝑐 𝑣 + 𝑅𝑢 𝑘𝐽 / 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐾
At this point, we introduce another ideal-gas property called the
specific heat ratio k, defined as
𝑐𝑃 𝑘𝑅 𝑅
𝑘= 𝑐𝑃 = 𝑐 𝑣=
𝑐𝑣 ( 𝑘−1) (𝑘 −1)
Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific
heats of solids and liquids
• Solids and liquids are incompressible substances, i.e. during a
process their density remains constant.
• For incompressible substance the and are identical, i.e.
𝑐 𝑃 =𝑐 𝑣 =𝑐
Internal Energy Changes
The specific heat of incompressible substance is dependent on
temperature only.
𝑑𝑢=𝑐 𝑣 𝑑𝑇 =𝑐 ( 𝑇 ) 𝑑𝑇
Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific
heats of solids and liquids
Internal Energy Changes
The change in internal energy between states 1 and 2 is then
obtained by integration:
2
∆ 𝑢=𝑢 2 −𝑢 1=∫ 𝑐 ( 𝑇 ) 𝑑𝑇
1
For small temperature intervals, a c value at the average
temperature can be used and treated as a constant, yielding
∆ 𝑢=𝑐 𝑎𝑣 (𝑇 2 − 𝑇 1 )
Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific
heats of solids and liquids
Enthalpy Changes
From the definition of
𝑑h =𝑑𝑢 + 𝑃𝑑𝑣 +𝑣𝑑𝑃
For incompressible substance
𝑑h =𝑑𝑢 +𝑣𝑑𝑃
Integrating
∆ h=∆ 𝑢+𝑣 ∆ 𝑃 =𝑐 𝑎𝑣 ∆ 𝑇 +𝑣 ∆ 𝑃
For solids the is not significant therefore
∆ h= ∆ 𝑢= 𝑐 𝑎𝑣 ∆ 𝑇
Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific
heats of solids and liquids
Enthalpy Changes
There are two cases for liquids
1. Constant-pressure processes, as in heaters
∆ h= ∆ 𝑢= 𝑐 𝑎𝑣 ∆ 𝑇
2. Constant-temperature processes, as in pumps
∆ h=∆ 𝑢+𝑣 ∆ 𝑃 =𝑐 𝑎𝑣 ∆ 𝑇 +𝑣 ∆ 𝑃 =𝑣𝑑𝑃
Review exercise

Nitrogen at an initial state of 300 K, 150 kPa,

and 0.2 m3 is compressed slowly in an
isothermal process to a final pressure of 800
kPa. Determine the work done during this
process.
Review exercise

The volume of 1 kg of helium in a piston-cylinder device is initially 5 m 3 . Now

helium is compressed to 2 m3 while its pressure is maintained constant at 180 kPa.
Determine the initial and final temperatures of helium as well as the work
required to compress it, in kJ. Take R = 2.0769 kJ/kg.K
Review exercise

A piston–cylinder device initially contains 0.4 kg of nitrogen gas at 160 kPa and
140. The nitrogen is now expanded isothermally to a pressure of 100 kPa.
Determine the boundary work done during this process. Take R = 0.2968 kJ/kg.K
Review exercise

A piston–cylinder device contains 0.15 kg of air initially at 2 MPa and 350. The air
is first expanded isothermally to 500 kPa, then compressed polytropically with a
polytropic exponent of 1.2 to the initial pressure, and finally compressed at the
constant pressure to the initial state. Determine the boundary work for each
process and the net work of the cycle.
Review exercise

A piston–cylinder device contains 2.2 kg of nitrogen initially at 100 kPa and 25. The
nitrogen is now compressed slowly in a polytropic process during which PV 1.3 =
constant until the volume is reduced by one-half. Determine the work done and
the heat transfer for this process. (take R = 0.2968 kPa.m3 /kg.K; )
Mass and Energy analysis of control
volumes
 Conservation of mass
❑
𝑚𝐶𝑉 =
Total mass within the CV: ∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉
𝐶𝑉

𝑑 𝑚 𝐶𝑉 𝑑
❑

Rate of change of mass within the CV:

𝑑𝑡
=
𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉
𝐶𝑉

Normal component of velocity: 𝑉 𝑛= 𝑉 cos 𝜃 =⃗ ⃗

𝑉 .𝑛

Differential mass flow rate: 𝛿 𝑚=

˙ 𝜌 𝑉 𝑛 𝑑𝐴= 𝜌 ¿
❑ ❑ ❑
Net mass flow rate: 𝑚 ˙ ∫ 𝜌 𝑉 𝑛 𝑑𝐴= ∫ 𝜌 ( ⃗
˙ 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∫ 𝛿 𝑚= ⃗ ) 𝑑𝐴
𝑉 .𝑛
𝐶𝑆 𝐶𝑆 𝐶𝑆

❑ ❑
𝑑 ⃗ .𝑛
General conservation of mass:
𝑑𝑡 ∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ 𝜌 ( 𝑉 ⃗ ) 𝑑𝐴 =0
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆
Conservation of mass

Splitting the surface integral for the inflow and outflow:

❑
𝑑
𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 + ∑ 𝜌 |𝑉 𝑛| 𝐴 − ∑ 𝜌|𝑉 𝑛| 𝐴=0
𝐶𝑉 𝑜 𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛

From the definition of mass flow rate;

❑
𝑑
𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 + ∑ 𝑚
˙ − ∑ 𝑚=
˙ 0
𝐶𝑉 𝑜 𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛
 Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
• During a steady flow process the total mass of the system is constant; (
0
❑
𝑑
𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 + ∑ 𝑚
˙ − ∑ 𝑚=
˙ 0
𝐶𝑉 𝑜 𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛

∑
Steady flow: 𝑚
˙ −∑ 𝑚
˙ (kg/s)
=0
𝑜 𝑢𝑡 𝑖 𝑛

Many engineering devices such as nozzles, diffusers, turbines,

compressors, and pumps involve a single stream (only one inlet and
one outlet). For these cases

Steady flow (single stream):

𝑚
˙ 1= 𝑚
˙ 2 → 𝜌 1 𝑉 1 𝐴1 = 𝜌 2 𝑉 2 𝐴 2
 Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes

For incompressible flow: density is constant at inlet and exit.

∑ 𝑉
Steady, incompressible flow:
˙ −∑ 𝑉
˙ (m=0
3
/s)
𝑜 𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛

˙ 1=𝑉
Steady, incompressible flow (single stream): 𝑉 ˙ 2 → 𝑉 1 𝐴 1=𝑉 2 𝐴 2

NOTE: During a steady-flow process,

volume flow rates are not necessarily
conserved, although mass flow rates are.
 Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
Example
Air enters a 28-cm diameter pipe steadily at 200 kPa and 20 with a velocity of 5 m/s.
Air is heated as it flows, and leaves the pipe at 180 kPa and 40. Determine (a) the
volume flow rate of air at the inlet, (b) the mass flow rate of air, and (c) the velocity
and volume flow rate at the exit. (Rair =0.287 kJ/kg.K)

b) The mass flow rate at the inlet

Solution
We assume air is an ideal gas with R=0.287kJ/kg.K
a) The volume flow rate at the inlet c) The velocity and volume flow rate at the exit

( )
2
𝜋 ∗ ( 0.28 𝑚 )
𝑉˙ 1=𝑉 1 𝐴1=5𝑚 /𝑠 ×
3
=0.3079 𝑚 /𝑠 Substituting;
4
Flow work and the energy of a flowing fluid

Flow work / flow energy is the energy required to

sustain the flow of the fluid into and out of the
control volume.
If the fluid pressure is P and the cross-sectional area
of the fluid element is A , the force applied on the
fluid element by the imaginary piston is

To push the entire fluid element into the control

volume, this force must act through a distance L,

The flow work per unit mass

 Total energy of a flowing fluid

• The total energy of a simple compressible system consists of three parts;

2
𝑉
𝑒=𝑢 +𝑘𝑒+ 𝑝𝑒=𝑢+ + 𝑔𝑧 ( 𝑘𝐽 / 𝑘𝑔)
2
• The fluid entering or leaving a control volume possesses an additional form of
energy the flow energy Pv. Therefore the total energy of flowing fluid will be;

𝜃= 𝑃𝑣 +𝑒= 𝑃𝑣 +(𝑢+𝑘𝑒 +𝑝𝑒 )

2
𝑉
𝜃= h+𝑘𝑒 +𝑝𝑒= h+ +𝑔𝑧 (𝑘𝐽 / 𝑘𝑔 )
2
 Energy transport by mass

• Amount of energy transport by mass;

( )
2
𝑉
𝐸 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 =𝑚 𝜃 =𝑚 h + + 𝑔𝑧 ( 𝑘𝐽 )
2
• Rate of energy transport by mass;
2
˙ ˙ ˙ 𝑉
𝐸 𝑚𝑎𝑠 = 𝑚 𝜃 = 𝑚 (h + + 𝑔𝑧 )(𝑘𝑊 )
2
 Energy analysis of steady-flow systems
• A steady flow process is a process during which a fluid flows through a control
volume steadily.
• The fluid properties can change from point to point within the control volume,
but at any point, they remain constant during the entire process.
• During a steady-flow process, no intensive or extensive properties within the
control volume change with time. Thus, the volume V, the mass m, and the total
energy content E of the control volume remain constant.
• Then the rate form of the general energy balance reduces for a steady-flow
process to;
0
˙ 𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸
˙ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑑
𝐸 𝐸 𝑠𝑦𝑠
𝑑𝑡
˙ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸
𝐸 ˙ 𝑜𝑢𝑡
 Energy analysis of steady-flow systems
• Noting that energy can be transferred by heat, work, and mass only, the energy
balance will be

𝑄˙ 𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊˙ 𝑖𝑛 + ∑ 𝑚𝜃=
˙ 𝑄˙ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊˙ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + ∑ 𝑚𝜃
˙
𝑖𝑛 𝑜 𝑢𝑡

( ) ( )
2 2
˙ =∑ 𝑚 𝑉 𝑉
˙ −𝑊
𝑄 ˙ h+ +𝑔𝑧 − ∑ 𝑚˙ h+ +𝑔𝑧
𝑜 𝑢𝑡 2 𝑖𝑛 2

Where: is net heat transfer rate in and

is net work done rate out

 Energy analysis of steady-flow systems
• For single-stream devices, the steady flow energy balance equation becomes

˙ −𝑊
𝑄 ˙ =𝑚
˙ ¿
𝑞 − 𝑤 =¿
In the steady flow single stream general equation;
 Energy analysis of steady-flow systems
In the steady flow single stream general equation;
• The heat transfer rate () is positive if heat is transferred in to the CV and
negative if heat is rejected from the CV, it is zero for adiabatic condition.
• The power (), is not related to the boundary (since volume is constant) as well as
the flow energy(its accounted by the enthalpy h); mainly its related to shaft
work and electric work.
• The enthalpy change () can be determined from property tables of for ideal
gases .
• The change in kinetic energy (),

For homogeneity it should be in kJ/kg; This is easily accomplished by dividing it

by 1000;

In most of the cases the change in kinetic and potential energies are negligible.
 SOME STEADY-FLOW ENGINEERING DEVICES

• The components of a steam power plant (turbines, compressors, heat

exchangers, and pumps), for example, operate steadily and therefor they are
steady flow devices.

Nozzles and Diffusers Used in jet engines, rockets, spacecraft

0 0
˙ −𝑊
𝑄 ˙ =𝑚
˙ ¿
 SOME STEADY-FLOW ENGINEERING DEVICES
Example
Steam enters a nozzle at 400 and 800 kPa with a velocity of 10 m/s, and leaves at 300 and 200 kPa
while losing heat at a rate of 25 kW. For an inlet area of 800, determine the velocity and the volume
flow rate of the steam at the nozzle exit.
 SOME STEADY-FLOW ENGINEERING DEVICES
Turbines and Compressors
• Turbines produce power output whereas compressors, pumps, and fans require
power input.
• Heat transfer from turbines is usually negligible (≈ 0) since they are typically well
insulated.
• Heat transfer is also negligible for compressors unless there is intentional cooling.
• Potential energy changes are negligible for all of these devices (Δpe ≌ 0).
• The change in kinetic energy in compressors are negligible and in turbines there is
a significant but compared with that of the change in enthalpy its negligible.

˙ ˙ =𝑚
𝑄 −𝑊 ˙ ¿
 SOME STEADY-FLOW ENGINEERING DEVICES
Example
Refrigerant-134a enters an adiabatic compressor as saturated vapor at 224 and leaves at 0.8 MPa and
60. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 1.2 kg/s. Determine (a) the power input to the compressor
and (b) the volume flow rate of the refrigerant at the compressor inlet.
 SOME STEADY-FLOW ENGINEERING DEVICES
Throttling Valves
• Throttling valves are any kind of flow-restricting devices that cause a significant
pressure drop in the fluid.
• The pressure drop in the fluid is often accompanied by a large drop in
temperature, and for that reason throttling devices are commonly used in
refrigeration and air-conditioning applications.
For a throttling valve, and also

˙ −𝑊
𝑄 ˙ =𝑚
˙ ¿
h 1 =h 2

𝑢1 + 𝑃 1 𝑣 1=𝑢2 + 𝑃 2 𝑣 2
 SOME STEADY-FLOW ENGINEERING DEVICES
Example
Refrigerant-134a is throttled from the saturated liquid state at 700 kPa to a pressure of 160 kPa.
Determine the temperature drop during this process and the final specific volume of the refrigerant.
 SOME STEADY-FLOW ENGINEERING DEVICES
Mixing Chambers
• There are many engineering application involving mixing of two fluid streams.
And the section where the mixing process takes place is commonly referred to as
a mixing chamber.
Lets assume we have two inlets 1&2 and one exit
3; the mass balance would be ;

Mixing chambers are usually insulated () and

involve no work interaction () and
Therefor the energy balance equation reduce to;
 SOME STEADY-FLOW ENGINEERING DEVICES
Example
Liquid water at 300 kPa and 20 is heated in a chamber by mixing it with superheated steam at 300
kPa and 300. Cold water enters the chamber at a rate of 1.8 kg/s. If the mixture leaves the mixing
chamber at 60, determine the mass flow rate of the superheated steam required.
 SOME STEADY-FLOW ENGINEERING DEVICES
Heat exchangers
• heat exchangers are devices where two moving fluid streams exchange heat
without mixing.
• The simples form of heat exchanger is a double tube heat exchanger

In a heat exchanger analysis;

• There is no work interaction ()
• Negligible change in K.E and P.E ()
• If the entire heat exchanger is considered as a
system, since it would be insulated ()
• If one of the fluid is considered as a system
then ()
 SOME STEADY-FLOW ENGINEERING DEVICES
Example
A heat exchanger is to heat water (cp = 4.18 kJ/kg·) from 25 to 60 at a rate of 0.2 kg/s. The heating is
to be accomplished by geothermal water (cp = 4.31 kJ/kg·) available at 140 at a mass flow rate of 0.3
kg/s. Determine the rate of heat transfer in the heat exchanger and the exit temperature of
geothermal water.

We take the cold water tubes as the system

 SOME STEADY-FLOW ENGINEERING DEVICES
Pipe and Duct Flow
• The transport of liquids or gases in pipes and ducts is of great importance in many
engineering applications.
• The control volume can be selected to coincide with the interior surfaces of the
portion of the pipe or the duct that we are interested in analyzing.
In a pipe flow analysis;
• Pipe or duct flow may involve more than one
form of work at the same time.
• The pipes may be insulted (adiabatic) or heat
transfer may be desirable.
• The changes in K.E and P.E may be considered if
the flow cross section varies and if there is a
considerable elevation change.
 SOME STEADY-FLOW ENGINEERING DEVICES
Example
Refrigerant-134a enters the condenser of a refrigerator at 900 kPa and 60, and leaves as a saturated
liquid at the same pressure. Determine the heat transfer from the refrigerant per unit mass.
 ENERGY ANALYSIS OF UNSTEADY-FLOW PROCESSES

• Unsteady process involves a change in the property of the control volume with
time. Some common examples are;
• Charging of a rigid vessel from a supply line
• Discharging a fluid from pressurized vessel
• Inflating tires and ballons
• Driving a gas turbine with pressurised air stored in a large container etc.
• Unlike steady flow processes they operate withing some
time interval .
• An unsteady-flow system, in some respects, is similar to a
closed system, except that the mass within the system
boundaries does not remain constant during a process.
• Unsteady systems may involve a change in volume unlike
steady flow systems
 ENERGY ANALYSIS OF UNSTEADY-FLOW PROCESSES

Mass balance

The energy balance would be;

When the kinetic and potential energy changes associated with the control volume
and fluid streams are negligible, as is usually the case;

𝑄 −𝑊 =∑ 𝑚h − ∑ 𝑚h + ( 𝑚 2 𝑢2 −𝑚1 𝑢1 )𝑠𝑦𝑠
𝑜 𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛
 ENERGY ANALYSIS OF UNSTEADY-FLOW PROCESSES
Example
A 0.3-m3 rigid tank is filled with saturated liquid water at 200. A valve at the bottom of the tank is
opened, and liquid is withdrawn from the tank. Heat is transferred to the water such that the
temperature in the tank remains constant. Determine the amount of heat that must be transferred
by the time one-half of the total mass has been withdrawn.
 ENERGY ANALYSIS OF UNSTEADY-FLOW PROCESSES
Example

Then the heat transfer during this process is determined from

the energy balance by substitution to be
𝑄𝑖𝑛 =𝟐𝟑𝟎𝟖 𝒌𝑱