Integumentary

System
 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM 1

The integumentary system consists of

the skin and accessory structures,
such as hair, glands, and nails.
Integument means covering.
The appearance of the integumentary
system can indicate physiological
imbalances in the body.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM 2
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM FUNCTIONS 1

1.Protection. The skin provides

protection against abrasion and
ultraviolet light.
2.Sensation. The integumentary
system has sensory receptors that
can detect heat, cold, touch,
pressure, and pain.
3.Vitamin D production. When
exposed to ultraviolet light, the skin
produces a molecule that can be
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM FUNCTIONS 2

4.Temperature regulation. The

amount of blood flow beneath the
skin’s surface and the activity of
sweat glands in the skin both help
regulate body temperature.
5.Excretion. Small amounts of waste
products are lost through the skin
and in gland secretions.
 SKIN
The skin is made up of two major tissue
layers: the epidermis and the dermis.
The epidermis is the most superficial
layer of skin. It is a layer of epithelial
tissue that rests on the dermis.
The dermis is a layer of dense
connective tissue.
The skin rests on the subcutaneous
tissue, which is a layer of connective
tissue.
EPIDERMIS AND DERMIS

(b) ©Victor Eroschenko

 EPIDERMIS 1

The epidermis prevents water loss and

resists abrasion.
The epidermis, known as the
cutaneous membrane, is a keratinized
stratified squamous epithelium.
The epidermis is composed of distinct
layers called strata.
 EPIDERMIS 2

The deepest stratum, stratum basale

consists of cuboidal or columnar cells
that undergo mitotic division about
every 19 days.
One daughter cell becomes a new
stratum basale cell and can divide
again.
The other daughter cell is pushed
toward the surface, a journey that
takes about 40-56 days.
 EPIDERMIS 3

The stratum corneum, the most

superficial stratum of the epidermis,
consists of dead squamous cells filled
with keratin.
Keratin gives the stratum corneum its
structural strength.
Composed of 25 or more layers of
dead squamous cells joined by
desmosomes.
As new cells form, they push older
 EPIDERMIS 4

Excessive sloughing of stratum

corneum cells from the surface of the
scalp is called dandruff.
In skin subjected to friction, the
number of layers in the stratum
corneum greatly increases, producing
a thickened area called a callus.
Over a bony prominence, the stratum
corneum can thicken to form a cone-
shaped structure called a corn.
 DERMIS 1

The dermis is composed of dense

collagenous connective tissue containing
fibroblasts, adipocytes, and macrophages.
Nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles,
glands, and lymphatic vessels extend into
the dermis.
Collagen fibers, oriented in many
directions, and elastic fibers are
responsible for the structural strength of
the dermis and resistance to stretch.
 DERMIS 2

Some collagen fibers are oriented more

directions than others, forming cleavage
lines.
Cleavage lines, or tension lines, in the
skin, are more resistant to stretch.
An incision made parallel with these lines
tends to gap less and produce less scar
tissue.
If the skin is overstretched for any reason,
the dermis can be damaged, leaving stretch
marks.
CLEAVAGE LINES
 DERMIS 3

Dermal papillae are projections toward

the epidermis found in the upper part of
the dermis.
The dermal papillae contain many blood
vessels.
The dermal papillae in the palms of the
hands, the soles of the feet, and the tips
of the digits are arranged in parallel,
curving ridges that shape the overlying
epidermis into fingerprints and footprints.
 SKIN COLOR 1

Factors that determine skin color include

pigments in the skin, blood circulating
through the skin, and the thickness of the
stratum corneum.
The two primary pigments are melanin and
carotene.
Melanin is the group of pigments primarily
responsible for skin, hair, and eye color.
Carotene is a yellow pigment found in plants
such as squash and carrots. (lipid soluble)
 SKIN COLOR 2

Most melanin molecules are brown to black

pigments, but some are yellowish or reddish.
Melanin provides protection against ultraviolet
light from the sun.
Melanin is produced by melanocytes and the
melanin is packaged into vesicles called
melanosomes, which move into the cell
processes of melanocytes.
Epithelial cells phagocytize the tips of the
melanocyte cell processes, thereby acquiring
melanosomes.
MELANIN TRANSFER TO EPITHELIAL
CELLS
 SKIN COLOR 3

Large amounts of melanin form freckles or

moles in some regions of the skin.
Melanin production is determined by genetic
factors, exposure to light, and hormones.
Genetic factors are responsible for the
amounts of melanin produced in different
races.
Since all races have about the same number
of melanocytes, racial variations in skin color
are determined by the amount, kind, and
distribution of melanin.
 SKIN COLOR 4

Exposure to ultraviolet light—for

example, in sunlight— stimulates
melanocytes to increase melanin
production. The result is a suntan.
Although many genes are responsible
for skin color, a single mutation can
prevent the production of melanin and
cause albinism.
 SKIN COLOR 5

Carotene is lipid-soluble; when

consumed, it accumulates in the lipids
of the stratum corneum and in the
adipocytes of the dermis and
subcutaneous tissue.
If large amounts of carotene are
consumed, the skin can become quite
yellowish.
 SKIN COLOR 6

The color of blood in the dermis

contributes to skin color.
A decrease in blood flow, as occurs in
shock, can make the skin appear pale.
A decrease in the blood O2 content
produces a bluish color of the skin,
called cyanosis.
 SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE 1

The skin (cutaneous membrane) rests on

the subcutaneous tissue.
The subcutaneous tissue, which is not part
of the skin, is sometimes called
hypodermis.
The subcutaneous tissue attaches the skin
to underlying bone and muscle and
supplies it with blood vessels and nerves.
It is loose connective tissue, including
adipose tissue that contains about half the
 SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE 2

The amount and location of adipose

tissue vary with age, sex, and diet.
Adipose tissue in the subcutaneous
tissue functions as padding and
insulation.
The subcutaneous tissue can be used to
estimate total body fat.
The acceptable percentage of body fat
varies from 21% to 30% for females
and from 13% to 25% for males.
 HAIR 1

In humans, hair is found everywhere on

the skin, except on the palms, soles, lips,
nipples, parts of the genitalia, and the
distal segments of the fingers and toes.
Each hair arises from a hair follicle, an
invagination of the epidermis that extends
deep into the dermis.
A hair shaft protrudes above the surface
of the skin; the root is below the surface
and the hair bulb is the expanded base of
the root.
 HAIR 2

A hair has a hard cortex, which

surrounds a softer center, the medulla.
The cortex is covered by the cuticle, a
single layer of overlapping cells that
holds the hair in the hair follicle.
Hair is produced in the hair bulb, which
rests on the hair papilla.
The hair papilla is an extension of the
dermis that protrudes into the hair bulb
and contains blood vessels.
 HAIR 3

Hair is produced in cycles, with a

growth stage and resting stage.
During the growth stage, hair is
formed by mitosis of epithelial cells
within the hair bulb; these cells divide
and undergo keratinization.
During the resting stage, growth
stops and the hair is held in the hair
follicle.
When the next growth stage begins, a
 HAIR 4

The duration of each stage depends on

the individual hair.
Eyelashes grow for about 30 days and
rest for 105 days, whereas scalp hairs
grow for 3 years and rest for 1 to 2
years.
The loss of hair normally means that
the hair is being replaced because the
old hair falls out of the hair follicle
when the new hair begins to grow.
 HAIR 5

Hair color is determined by varying

amounts and types of melanin.
With age, the amount of melanin in hair
can decrease, causing the hair color to
become faded, or the hair can contain
no melanin and be white.
Each hair follicle is attached to smooth
muscle cells called the arrector pili
muscle, which can contract and cause
the hair to become perpendicular to the
HAIR FOLLICLE
 GLANDS 1

The major glands of the skin are the

sebaceous glands and the sweat glands.
Sebaceous glands are simple, branched
acinar glands, with most being connected by a
duct to the superficial part of a hair follicle.
They produce sebum, an oily, white
substance rich in lipids.
The sebum is released by holocrine secretion
and lubricates the hair and the surface of the
skin, which prevents drying and protects
against some bacteria.
 GLANDS 2

There are two kinds of sweat glands:

eccrine and apocrine.
Eccrine sweat glands are simple, coiled,
tubular glands and release sweat by
merocrine secretion.
Eccrine glands are located in almost
every part of the skin but most numerous
in the palms and soles.
They produce a secretion that is mostly
water with a few salts.
 GLANDS 3

Eccrine sweat glands have ducts that

open onto the surface of the skin
through sweat pores and are for
thermal regulation.
Sweat can also be released in the
palms, soles, armpits, and other places
because of emotional stress.
 GLANDS 4

Apocrine sweat glands are simple, coiled,

tubular glands that produce a thick secretion
rich in organic substances.
The glands open into hair follicles in the
armpits and genitalia.
Apocrine sweat glands become active at
puberty because of the influence of sex
hormones.
The secretion generally is odorless, but when
released quickly breaks down by bacterial
action giving body odor.
GLANDS OF THE SKIN
 NAILS 1

The nail is a thin plate, consisting of

layers of dead stratum corneum cells
that contain a very hard type of keratin.
The visible part of the nail is the nail
body, and the part of the nail covered
by skin is the nail root.
The cuticle, or eponychium, is
stratum corneum that extends onto the
nail body and the nail root extends
distally from the nail matrix.
 NAILS 2

The nail also attaches to the underlying nail

bed, which is located distal to the nail matrix.
The nail matrix and bed are epithelial
tissue with a stratum basale that gives rise
to the cells that form the nail.
A small part of the nail matrix, the lunula,
can be seen through the nail body as a
whitish, crescent-shaped area at the base of
the nail.
Cell production within the nail matrix causes
the nail to grow continuously.
NAIL
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM PROTECTION 1

The integumentary system performs many

protective functions:
1. Reduction in body water loss
2. Acts as a barrier that prevents
microorganisms and other foreign
substances from entering the body
3. Protects underlying structures against
abrasion
4. Melanin absorbs ultraviolet light and
protects underlying structures from its
damaging effects
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM PROTECTION 2

5. Hair protection: The hair on the head

acts as a heat insulator, eyebrows
keep sweat out of the eyes,
eyelashes protect the eyes from
foreign objects, and hair in the nose
and ears prevents the entry of dust
and other materials.
6. The nails protect the ends of the
fingers and toes from damage and
can be used in defense.
 SENSORY RECEPTOR
Many sensory receptors are associated
with the skin.
Receptors in the epidermis and dermis
can detect pain, heat, cold, and
pressure.
Although hair does not have a nerve
supply, sensory receptors around the
hair follicle can detect the movement
of a hair.
 VITAMIN D PRODUCTION
1. UV light causes the skin to produce a
precursor molecule of vitamin D.
2. The precursor molecule is carried by the
blood to the liver where it is enzymatically
converted.
3. The enzymatically converted molecule is
carried by the blood to the kidneys where
it is converted again to the active form of
vitamin D.
4. Vitamin D stimulates the small intestine to
absorb calcium and phosphate for many
body functions.
TEMPERATURE REGULATION 1

Regulation of body temperature is important

because the rate of chemical reactions
within the body can be increased or
decreased by changes in body temperature.
Even slight changes in temperature can
make enzymes operate less efficiently and
disrupt the normal rates of chemical
changes in the body.
Exercise, fever, and an increase in
environmental temperature tend to raise
body temperature.
TEMPERATURE REGULATION 2

In order to maintain homeostasis, the

body must rid itself of excess heat.
Blood vessels in the dermis dilate and
enable more blood to flow within the
skin, thus causing heat to dissipate
from the body.
Sweat also assists in loss of heat
through evaporative cooling.
TEMPERATURE REGULATION 3

If body temperature begins to drop

below normal, heat can be conserved by
the constriction of dermal blood vessels,
which reduces blood flow to the skin.
Less heat is transferred from deeper
structures to the skin, and heat loss is
reduced.
With smaller amounts of warm blood
flowing through the skin, the skin
temperature decreases.
HEAT EXCHANGE IN THE SKIN
 EXCRETION
The integumentary system plays a minor
role in excretion, the removal of waste
products from the body.
In addition to water and salts, sweat
contains small amounts of waste products,
such as urea, uric acid, and ammonia.
Even though the body can lose large
amounts of sweat, the sweat glands do
not play a significant role in the excretion
of waste products.
 DIAGNOSTIC AID
The integumentary system is useful in
diagnosis because it is observed easily.
Cyanosis, a bluish color to the skin caused
by decreased blood O2 content, is an
indication of impaired circulatory or
respiratory function.
A yellowish skin color, called jaundice, can
occur when the liver is damaged by a
disease, such as viral hepatitis.
Rashes and lesions in the skin can be
symptoms of problems elsewhere in the body.
 BURNS 1

A burn is injury to a tissue caused by

heat, cold, friction, chemicals,
electricity, or radiation.
Burns are classified according to their
depth.
Partial-thickness burns are classified as
first-degree and second-degree.
A full-thickness burn is a third-degree
burn.
 FIRST-DEGREE BURN
A first-degree (superficial) burn
involves only the epidermis and is red
and painful.
Slight edema, or swelling, may be
present.
They can be caused by sunburn or
brief exposure to very hot or very cold
objects, and they heal without scarring
in about a week.
 SECOND-DEGREE BURN
Second-degree (partial-thickness)
burns damage both the epidermis and
the dermis.
If dermal damage is minimal,
symptoms include redness, pain,
edema, and blisters.
Healing takes about 2 weeks, and no
scarring results.
If the burn goes deep into the dermis,
the wound appears red, tan, or white;
 THIRD-DEGREE BURN
Third-degree (full-thickness) burns
damage the complete epidermis and
dermis.
The region of third-degree burn is
usually painless because sensory
receptors in the epidermis and dermis
have been destroyed.
Third-degree burns appear white, tan,
brown, black, or deep cherry red.
 BURN HEALING
In all second-degree burns, the epidermis,
including the stratum basale where the
stem cells are found, is damaged.
The epidermis regenerates from epithelial
tissue in hair follicles and sweat glands,
as well as from the edges of the wound.
Deep partial-thickness and full-thickness
burns take a long time to heal, and they
form scar tissue with disfiguring and
debilitating wound contractures.
 TREATMENT OF BURNS
To prevent complications of deep partial-
thickness and full-thickness burns and to
speed healing, skin grafts are often
performed.
In a procedure called a split skin graft, the
epidermis and part of the dermis are removed
from another part of the body and placed over
the burn
When it is not possible or practical to move
skin from one part of the body to a burn site,
physicians sometimes use artificial skin or
grafts from human cadavers.
BURNS 2

Figure 5.9
 SKIN CANCER
Most common cancer
Mainly caused by UV light exposure
Fair-skinned people more prone
Prevented by limiting sun exposure and
using sunscreens
UVA rays cause tan and is associated with
malignant melanomas
UVB rays cause sunburns
Sunscreens should block UVA and UVB rays
 TYPES OF SKIN CANCER
Basal cell carcinoma:
• cells in stratum basale affected
• cancer removed by surgery
Squamous cell carcinoma:
• cells above stratum basale affected
• can cause death
Malignant melanoma:
• arises from melanocytes in a mole
• rare type
• can cause death
CANCER OF THE SKIN

(a) ©Dr. P. Marazzi/Science Source RF; (b) ©Dr. P. Marazzi/Science Source; (c) Source: National Cancer Institute
AGING AND THE INTEGUMENT
Blood flow decreases and skin becomes
thinner due to decreased amounts of
collagen
Decreased activity of sebaceous and
sweat glands make temperature
regulation more difficult
Loss of elastic fibers cause skin to sag
and wrinkle