Key scholars

• Charles A. Ferguson (1921-1998)

Diglossia, 1959, Word vol. 15: 325-340
-introduces the concept

• Joshua A. Fishman (1967)

-develops Ferguson’s ideas
-introduces ‘extended bilingualism’
definition of diglossia

Di meaning “two”
glossa meaning “ tongue’ or Language

Ferguson’s Focuses on two varieties of the same language. i.e

High variety(H)in classical Arabic and low variety (L) used in
communication (colloquil Arabic) (Narrow diglossia)

Fishman expanded the concept two different languages. E.g..

Spanish (L)and English (H) in Hispanic communities in the U.S
(Extended diglossia)
Ferguson’s definition of diglossia

• “A specific relationship between 2 or more varieties

of the same language in use in a speech community
in different functions” (1972)

• One variety is superposed, labelled H, whilst the

other variety(ies) are L and can be distinguished
through their functional specialisation
 Janet Holmes
Diglossia has a distinct functional distribution of
two varieties, with the high (H) variety used in
formal, prestigious domains and the low (L)
variety used in informal, everyday interactions
• Diglossia has three crucial features
• 1. Two distinct varieties of the same language
are used in the community, with one regarded
as a high (or H) variety and the other a low (or
L) variety.
• 2. Each variety is used for quite distinct
functions; H and L complement each other.
• 3. No one uses the H variety in
everyday conversation.
 Typical situations for
H and L varieties
• High usages:
Religion: sermon in church/mosque, Prayers.
speech in parliament/political speech
university lecture
news broadcast,
newspaper editorial, news story
poetry
• Education ( written material, lectures)

• Low usages:
Instructions to waiters
Conversations with family, friends, colleagues
Radio soap opera
Caption on political cartoon
Folk literature

• Overlap between the two - in all defining speech communities it is typical to read
aloud from a newspaper in H and discuss its contents in L.
 Areas in which H and L differ
• Function – H and L different purposes, native speakers would
find it odd if anyone used H in an L domain or L in an H domain
• Prestige – H more highly valued
• Literary heritage – literature normally in H variety, no written
uses of L
• Acquisition – L variety acquired first, H learn through schooling
• Standardisation– H strictly standardised, L rarely standardised
• Stability – diglossias generally stable
• Grammar – H more complex than L
• Lexicon – often shared, but differentiations in vocabulary
 Domains of language use
Domain Address Setting Topic Language
ee

Family Parents Home Planning a family party Guarani

Friendship Friends Café Funny anecdote Guarani

Religion Priest Church Choosing the Sunday liturgy Spanish

Education Lecturer University Solving a math's problem Spanish

Administration Official Office Getting an import license Spanish

 Diglossic communities
• Haiti
H – French
L - Haitian creole
• Switzerland
H – standard German
L – Swiss German
• Arabic speaking Countries
H – Classical Arabic
L – colloquial Arabic
 Diglossia vs. Bilingualism
• ‘Bilingualism’ - two languages of an individual
• ‘Diglossia’ - Two varieties of the same language in
society.
• Diglossia happens in communities, not individuals
• A person can be bilingual, but a whole society is called
diglossic
• Fishman - the relationship between societal
diglossia and individual bilingualism is not
necessary or causal
• (A) Bilingualism with and without diglossia
• (B) Diglossia with and without bilingualism
• Janet Holmes’’diglossia and bilingualism can
coexist in some communities. For instance, in
Paraguay, people are both bilingual (Spanish
and Guaraní) and diglossic (Spanish as
H, Guaraní as L).
 A) Bilingualism with and without Diglossia
• Bilingualism means that individuals can speak two languages,
but whether these languages have separate functions in
society determines if diglossia is present.
• Bilingualism with Diglossia → People speak two languages,
and each has a specific function in society.
– Example: Paraguay
• Spanish (H) is used for government, education, and
formal settings.
• Guaraní (L) is used in daily conversations and informal
settings.
• Most Paraguayans are bilingual, and the two languages
serve distinct roles.
• Bilingualism without Diglossia → People
speak two languages, but there is no strict
division of functions.
– Example: USA, Canada, Australia
• Many individuals speak English and another language
(like Spanish or Mandarin in the USA).
• However, both languages may be used in various
domains without a clear separation.
• Society as a whole does not assign one language to
formal use and another to informal use.
 B) Diglossia with and without Bilingualism
• Diglossia means that a society has two language varieties
for different functions, but not everyone in that society
has to be bilingual.
• Diglossia with Bilingualism → The society has two
languages for different functions, and most people speak
both.
– Example: Switzerland (German dialects and Standard
German)
• Swiss German (L) is used in everyday speech.
• Standard German (H) is used in formal settings like news, education, and
writing.
• Most people can speak both, making it a case of diglossia with
bilingualism.
• Diglossia without Bilingualism → The society has two
languages for different functions, but most people speak only
one.
Example: Haiti (French and Haitian Creole)
• French (H) is used in government, law, and education.
• Haitian Creole (L) is spoken in everyday life.
• However, most Haitians are monolingual in Creole and
cannot fully participate in formal settings.
• This is a case of diglossia without bilingualism
because two languages have clear roles, but most people
do not know both.
• These distinctions show that bilingualism and diglossia do not
always go together!
 Key differences
feature Diglossia Bilingualism

Number of Two varieties of the Two different

languages same language languages

Functional Strict (h for formal, No strict separation

separation L for informal

Individual vs Societal Can be individual or

societal societal
 Extending the scope of ‘diglossia’
• In some places, the H (high) and L (low) varieties of a
language function like two separate languages.
Example: In Eggenwil (Germany) and Sauris (Italian
Alps), different varieties are used in different
situations.
 In diglossia, there is a “division of labor” between
languages
 H is used for formal, prestigious settings.
 L is used for everyday, informal communication
• Even though H is usually more prestigious, people
may still feel proud of L.
Example: Paraguayans value their Guaraní language
• L is typically learned at home, while H is learned in
school but some people may use H in the home too
Example: In Sauris, parents spoke Italian to children to
help them with school.
• Literature is usually written in H, but L may have a
strong oral tradition.
• H has been standardized with grammar books and
dictionaries for a long time, but L varieties are now
also being codified.
Polyglossia
 A sociolinguistic concept that refers to the
structured coexistence of multiple language
varieties or languages within a community.
 OR The term polyglossia refers to linguistics
situation in which multiple languages or
language varieties Coexist in a society, each
serving different functions.
 These varieties may have specific social or
functional roles (e.g., one for official use,
another for home, another for religion).
 Polyglossia
e.g. Kalala in Bukavu (Table 2.1) multiple languages are
used different functions.
Singapore:
 H varieties: Mandarin and formal Singapore English.
L varieties: Cantonese, Hokkien and informal Singapore
English.
In this speech community there are two H varieties and a
number of low varieties in a complex relationship
 Polyglossia in singapore
H Mandarin Singapore ENGLISH Formal variety
L Cantonese Hokkien Singapore English informal variety
 Changes in a diglossia situation
• Diglossia has been described as a stable
situation but it can change over time in
different ways.
• Stability of Diglossia: In some societies,
diglossia remains stable for centuries.
Example: Arabic-speaking countries and Haiti
have maintained diglossic systems where two
varieties coexist without one
replacing the other
 Language Shift: England After 1066 (French vs.
English)After the Norman Conquest (1066), England
experienced diglossia:H (High) Variety: French (used
in court, administration, law, and high society).
L (Low) Variety: English (spoken by common people).
 English French English
 Ox boeuf beef
 Sheep mouton mutton
 Calf veau veal
 Pig porc pork
 Should Diglossia or Polyglossia Describe All
Societies?
Multilingual communities use different languages for
different functions:
Example: Democratic Republic of the Congo-Zaire
H Varieties: French or Swahili (used in formal settings).
L Variety: A vernacular tribal language (e.g., Shi) for
casual conversations.
Monolingual communities also show variation: Example:
English speakers in Britain and New Zealand. They use
different styles of English depending on the situation
 Code Switching and code Mixing
• Code: A language may be referred to a code

• A code is a neutral term which can be used to

denote a language or a variety of language.
 Code Switching or Code Mixing
• Code-switching is a situation where the
speakers deliberately change a code being
used, by switching from one language to
another. Among several definitions of Code-
Switching, the following definitions should
give clarity needed to understand the concept
“Code-Switching has become a common term for
alternate use of two or more languages, or varieties of
language, or even speech styles ".(Dell hymes, 1875).

According to Yua (1997), within a single

communicative exchange the use of more than
one language is called code-switching.
• Holmes, code switching as the practice of
alternating between two or more languages or
language varieties within a single
conversation, depending on the social context
or domain

• Inter-sentential Switching (Code switching)

• Intra-sentential switching (code Mixing)
 Inter-sentential (Code Switching)
• It occurs when a speaker alternates between two or
more languages or language varieties in a
conversation.
• The switch happens at a sentence or clause level,
often influenced by context, audience, or topic. It is
usually intentional and follows grammatical rules of
each language.
• Example: "I went to the market, and luego compré
frutas.“ then I bought fruits. (Switching from
English to Spanish
 Code switching
• Example 8
• [ The Maori is in italics. THE TRANSLATION IS IN SMALL
CAPITALS. ]
• Sarah : I think everyone’s here except Mere.
• John : She said she might be a bit late but actually I think
that’s her arriving now.
• Sarah : You’re right. Kia ora Mere. Haere mai. Kei te pehea
koe ?
• [ HI MERE. COME IN. HOW ARE YOU ?]
• Mere : [Kia ora e hoa. Kei te pai ]. Have you started yet?
• [ HELLO MY FRIEND. I’M FINE ]
 Intra-sentential switching (code Mixing)

• The blending of words, phrases, or morphemes from

two languages within the same sentence or utterance.
• She bought some sabzi from the market.
• I need to complete my assignment before maghrib.
• Example 9
• (a) Tamati : Engari [ SO ] now we turn to more
important matters.
• (Switch between Maori and English)
• (b) Ming : Confiscated by Customs, dàgài [PROBABLY ]
• (Switch between English and Mandarin Chinese)
• (c) A : Well I’m glad I met you. OK?
• M : ándale pues [OK SWELL ], and do come again.
Mm?
• (Switch between Spanish and English)
  Situational switching
• When people switch from one code to
another for reasons which can be clearly
identified, it is sometimes called situational
switching.
• Holmes explains that speakers shift languages
depending on formality and audience
expectations or changes in setting participants
and formality.
• Example 10
• [ BOKMÅL IS IN SMALL CAPITALS . Ranamål in lower case.]
• Jan : Hello Petter. How is your wife now?
• Petter : Oh she’s much better thank you Jan. She’s out of
hospital and convalescing well.
• Jan : That’s good I’m pleased to hear it. DO YOU THINK
YOU COULD HELP ME WITH
• THIS PESKY FORM? I AM HAVING A GREAT DEAL OF
DIFFICULTY WITH IT.
• Petter : OF COURSE. GIVE IT HERE . . .
• They switchfrom their roles as neighbours to their roles as
bureaucrat and member of the public.
• they switch from a personal interaction to a more formal
transaction
• Example 12
• [ The Mandarin Chinese is in italics. THE
TRANSLATION IS IN SMALL CAPITALS. ]
• A group of Chinese students from Beijing are
discussing Chinese customs.
• Li : People here get divorced too easily. Like
exchanging faulty goods. In China it’s not the same.
• Jià goJ súi goJ, jià jC súi jC .
• [ IF YOU HAVE MARRIED A DOG, YOU FOLLOW
A DOG, IF YOU’VE MARRIED A CHICKEN, YOU
FOLLOW A CHICKEN. ]
  Switching for affective function
• People sometimes switch codes for affective
functions.
 Expressing Emotion (Anger, Frustration, or
Defiance)
• Sometimes, a person may switch language because
he/she is angry. It, for instance, has been seen that a
Pathan often switches to Pushto when he resorts to
calling names when provoked into anger.
• People switch codes to express emotions strongly, often
using their native or less formal language.
• Example 13: Polly, a Black British woman, angrily
switched to Patois to swear at a teacher who unfairly
criticized her story. The teacher, though not
understanding the words, felt the intensity of her
emotions.
Signaling Identity and Group Membership

• Switching between languages or dialects can

reinforce ethnic, cultural, or regional identity.
• Example 14: A Black British person may use
“Patois” (non standard or regional form of a
language) with friends but switch to Standard
English with a British regional accent in local
conversations, signaling their identity as a
West Midlander.
• Example 14
• [ Patois is written in italics. ]
• With Melanie right you have to say she speaks tri
different sort of language when she wants to. Cos she
speak half Patois, half English and when im ready im
will come out wid ,
• ‘I day and I bay and I ay this and I ay that. I day have
it and I day know where it is’
• . . . And then she goes ‘ Lord God, I so hot’. Now
she’ll be sitting there right and she’ll go.
• ‘It’s hot isn’t it?’, you know, and you think which
one is she going to grow up speaking?
 Using Humor and Parody
• Code-switching can create humor, dramatization, or
parody by exaggerating speech patterns or mixing
languages for comic effect.
• Example 14: Melanie, a bilingual speaker, frequently
mixes Patois and English, sometimes exaggerating it
for dramatic or humorous effect. Others may mimic
this switching to "send her up" (playfully mock her),
showing how multilingual speakers use language
creatively.
 Creating Social Distance and Asserting
Authority
• Switching to a more formal or authoritative language
signals disapproval or an increase in social distance.
• Example 15: A grandfather in Oberwart initially
scolded his grandchildren in Hungarian, the language
of home and warmth. When they didn’t respond
quickly enough, he switched to dialectal German—
the language of authority and discipline— to
emphasize his anger and demand obedience.
 Authority and Formality

Code-switching can be used to establish authority and create

social distance.
Example16 : A father switches from an affectionate nickname to
a full name and formal vocabulary when reprimanding his son.
• Example 16
• Father : Tea’s ready Robbie.
• ( Robbie ignores him and carries on skate-boarding. )
• Father: Mr Robert Harris if you do not come in
immediately there will be consequences which you
will regret.
  Linguistic Features in Code-
Switching
• Formality in language signals a shift in tone and
intent.
• Use of full name and title instead of a nickname.
• Complex sentence structure with subordinate
clauses.
• Formal vocabulary (e.g., "immediately" instead
of "now," "consequences" instead of "sorry")
 Metaphorical Switching
• Metaphorical switching occurs when the
speaker is really skilled bilingual. The speaker
uses code switching like metaphor only to
enrich his or her communication.
 Strategic Use of Multiple Languages for Different
Social Roles
• Metaphorical switching occurs when a speaker rapidly
alternates between two languages, not because of a change in
topic, audience, or setting, but to evoke different social
meanings.
• Example 17: Mr. Rupa, a village leader in (PNG) Papua New
Guinea, switches between Buang (his tribal language) and Tok
Pisin (a national creole).
– Buang emphasizes his local identity, his connection to the
community, and solidarity.
– Tok Pisin highlights his business expertise, wider-world
connections, and authority in financial matters.
– By switching languages, he comforts the villagers and shows
he is a knowledgeable businessman.
 Using Language to Express Contrasting Emotions

• Speakers may use one language for factual content and

another for emotional or personal reactions.
• Example 18: Alf, a Samoan man, describes his struggle with
dieting.
– English is used for neutral, referential statements: "My
doctor told me to go on a diet."
– Samoan conveys his emotional turmoil and frustration: "IT
WAS SO HARD. I’D GET DESPERATE."
– This switching allows him to maintain some emotional
distance while also expressing his internal struggle more
vividly.
 Lexical Borrowing
• Lexical borrowing is when one language takes words
from another language and uses them as part of its
vocabulary
• OR
• This type of switching is different from switches
caused by a lack of vocabulary in a language
• Lexical borrowing happens when a speaker lacks a
vocabulary in their second language.
 Linguistic constraints
• Linguistic constraints are Structural rules that
govern language use, limiting how linguistics
elements can be combined, especially in
bilingual speech and code- switching.
• OR sociolinguistics study Where and why
code-switching happens, looking for universal
linguistic rules,
 Equivalence Constraint
• Code-switching within a sentence(intra-sentential
switching) can only happen where the grammatical
structures of both languages match.
• If two languages follow different word orders,
switching is not possible. Example 20
• English French Possible switch point?
• red boat bateau rouge NO
• big house grande maison YES: i.e. ‘big maison’
or ‘grande house’
 Matrix Language Frame (MLF) Model
• One language acts as the matrix language, providing
grammatical structure (e.g., verb tense, subject
agreement).The other language, called the embedded
language, provides content words (nouns, verbs).
• Example 21: (Swahili-English switching)
• Leo si-ku-COME na-BOOK z-angu
• ("Today I didn’t come with my books")
• Swahili (matrix language): Provides tense, negation,
and subject agreement.
• English (embedded language): Provides content words
(COME, BOOK).
Attitudes to code-switching
 Unconscious Code-Switching
• People often code-switch without realizing it.
When made aware, some react negatively,
feeling embarrassed or apologetic. Example
22(a):Norwegian university students switched
between their local dialect and standard
Norwegian based on the topic. When they
heard recordings, some were shocked and
vowed to stop
 language shift
A language shift happens when a community
uses less and less of its own vernacular and
adopts a new language in many domains.
• Language Choice and Power Dynamics
• In multilingual societies, language choice is
influenced by social, political, and economic
factors.
• Dominant languages (e.g., English) often
replace lesser-used languages, limiting choices
for minority speakers.
• . Language Shift in Migrant Communities
• Migrant families often shift from their native
language to the dominant language of the host
country.
• Example: Maniben, a British Hindu woman, initially
used Gujarati but gradually adopted English at work.
• Schools play a crucial role in language shift, as
children learn and use the dominant language for
communication
 Factors Leading to Language Shift
• Economic pressures: Job opportunities favor the
dominant language.
• Social integration: Speaking the dominant language is
linked to acceptance and success./Success comes with
the new language
• Generational transition: The first generation speaks
the mother tongue, the second is bilingual, and the
third often becomes monolingual in the dominant
language.
 Demographic factors:

• People in rural areas shift less than those in big cities.

• Intermarriage promotes language shift
• Value of the language (sacred, for religious/traditional
ceremonies) slower the shift
 Political Influence on Language
Shift
• Governments often promote a single language
for national unity.
• Example: Iran, where parsee is displacing
Azeri, even though minority languages are
constitutionally protected.
• Public signs and education policies reinforce
the dominance of the official language.
 Historical Language Shift Due to
Colonization
• Colonizers imposed their languages, often
leading to the decline of indigenous
languages.
• Example: Oberwart, Austria, shifted from
Hungarian to German due to political and
economic pressures.
• Example: New Zealand, where Maori
language declined due to English dominance.
 The Role of Prestige in Language
Shift
• Dominant languages gain status through
media, education, and public institutions.
• Minority languages are often seen as outdated
or less valuable.
• Youth are influenced by media, pop culture,
and economic opportunities, leading to
language abandonment.
Definition of Language Death
– A language dies when all of its native speakers
pass away and it is no longer used in any form.
OR
When the process is completed, and there is no more
--anywhere in the world--native speakers of the
minority language, then it is said that language
death has taken place.
Example: The Ubykh language became extinct in
1992 when its last speaker, Tefvik Esenç, died.
 "Language death occurs in unstable bilingual
or multilingual speech communities as a result
of language shift from a regressive minority
language to a dominant majority language."
(Wolfgang Dressler, "Language Death." 1988)
 “A language dies when nobody speaks it any
more” (Crystal, 2003: 1)
 “When all the people who speak a language
die, the language dies with them.” (Holmes,
1992: 61)
 Causes of Language Death
• Urbanization and political decisions (e.g., enforcing
compulsory education in a dominant language).
• Cultural and societal shifts leading to reduced usage
of the minority language.
• Massacres or Genocides and diseases that wipe out
indigenous populations.
• Example: The indigenous Tasmanian languages
disappeared after the extermination of the local
population.
 Language Loss and Gradual
Erosion
• Language does not disappear instantly but
gradually declines as fewer people use it.
• Vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation
become simplified over time.
• Example: Annie, a Dyirbal speaker, struggles
with vocabulary and grammar, mixing English
with Dyirbal.
 Language loss
 Factors leading to language loss
 Death of speakers
 Social
 Cultural
 Economic
 Political
 Death of speakers
 Natural disasters
 Famine and drought
 Diseases
 Genocides
 Difference Between Language
Death and Language Shift
• Language Shift occurs when a community adopts a
new language while their original language survives
elsewhere.
• Language Death happens when a language loses all
its speakers and is not used anywhere.
• Example: Turkish immigrants in Britain shift to
English, but Turkish remains alive in Turkey. In
contrast, the Australian Aboriginal language
Martuthunira died when its last speaker passed away.
 Stages of Language Decline
• The language first retreats to home use.
• Then it is only used in limited settings (e.g.,
prayers, ceremonies).
• Eventually, it disappears completely.
• Example: Maori in New Zealand is now mainly
used for ceremonial purposes due to the loss
of fluent speakers