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Technical significance of
measurements
and instrumentations

For
II/EEE/REC
 MEASUREMENT
AND
INSTRUMENTATION

Prepared by
M.JENNY/AP/EEE
ROEVER ENGINEERING COLLEGE
 UNIT I
Concepts of Measurement
Measurements
Instruments types
Functional elements of an instruments
Static characteristic
Dynamic characteristics
Errors in measurements
Calibration
Standard
 Measurements

 Measurement of a given quantity is

essentially an act or result of comparison
between the quantity (whose magnitude is
unknown) and predetermined or predefined
standards.
 Two quantities are compared the result is
expressed in numerical values.
 Basic requirements for a
meaningful measurement
 The standard used for comparison purposes
must be accurately defined and should be
commonly accepted.
 The apparatus used and the method adopted
must be provable (verifiable).
 Significance Of Measurement
 Importance of Measurement is simply and
eloquently expressed in the following
statement of famous physicist Lord
Kelvin: “I often say that when you can
measure what you are speaking about
and can express it in numbers, you know
something about it; when you cannot
express in it numbers your knowledge is
of meager and unsatisfactory kind”
Two major functions of all branch
of engineering
 Design of equipment and processes
 Proper Operation and maintenance of
equipment and processes.
 Methods of Measurement
 Direct Methods

 Indirect Methods
• DIRECT METHODS: In these methods, the unknown
or physical quantity(called the measurant ) is
directly compared against a standard.
Eg;1) measuring the length of the bar using scale.
2)Counting the number of strokes of a clock.
• INDIRECT METHOD: Measurements by direct
methods are not always possible, feasible and
practicable. In engineering applications
measurement systems are used which require need
of indirect method for measurement purposes.
• ( Need one conversion)
 Evolution of Instruments.
a) Mechanical
b) Electrical
c) Electronic Instruments.

 MECHANICAL: These instruments are

very reliable for static and stable conditions.
But their disadvantage is that they are
unable to respond rapidly to measurements
of dynamic and transient conditions.
 Contd
 ELECTRICAL: It is faster than mechanical,
indicating the output are rapid than mechanical
methods. But it depends on the mechanical
movement of the meters. The response is 0.5 to
24 seconds.

 ELECTRONIC: It is more reliable than other

system. It uses semiconductor devices and weak
signal can also be detected.
 Classification Of Measurements

 Primary measurements.(direct)

 Secondary measurements.(indirect)

 Tertiary measurements.(tertiary)
 Functions of instrument and measuring
system can be classified into three. They are:
i) Indicating function.
ii) Recording function.
iii) Controlling function.
 Application of measurement systems are:
i) Monitoring of process and operation.
ii) Control of processes and operation.
iii) Experimental engineering analysis.
 Types Of Instrumentation
System
 Intelligent Instrument – use
microprocessors technology to measure the
desired quantity.
 Dumb Instrument – measure the quantities
directly without using microprocessors.
 Functional Elements of an
Instrumentation System
PRIMARY VARIABLE VARIABLE DATA DATA
SENSING CONVERSION MANIPULATION TRANS PRESEN
QUANTITY ELEMENT ELEMENT ELEMENT -MISSION -TATION
TO BE ELEMENT ELEMENT
MEASURED

DATA CONDITIONING ELEMENT

TERMINATING
DETECTOR STAGE
TRANSDUCER INTERMEDIATE STAGE
STAGE
 Static Characteristics Of
Instruments And Measurement
Systems
 Application involved measurement of
quantity that are either constant or varies
slowly with time is known as static.
 Accuracy
 Drift
 Dead Zone
 Static Error
 Sensitivity
 Reproducibility
 Static Characteristics
 Static correction
 Scale range
 Scale span
 Noise
 Dead Time
 Hysteresis.
 Linearity
 Noise

Generated Conducted Radiated

Noise Noise Noise
 Dynamic Characteristics of
Measurement System
• Speed of response
• Measuring lag
• Fidelity
• Dynamic error
 Errors in Measurement
 Limiting Errors (Guarantee Errors)
 Known Error
Classification

Gross Systematic Random

Error Error Error

Instrumental Observational
Environmental
Gross Error
 Human Mistakes in reading , recording and
calculating measurement results.
 The experimenter may grossly misread the
scale.
 E.g.: Due to oversight instead of 21.5 oC,
they may read as 31.5oC
They may transpose the reading while
recording (like reading 25.8oC and
record as 28.5oC)
 Systematic Errors
 INSTRUMENTAL ERROR: These errors arise
due to 3 reasons-
• Due to inherent short comings in the
instrument
• Due to misuse of the instrument
• Due to loading effects of the instrument.
 ENVIRONMENTAL ERROR: These errors are
due to conditions external to the measuring device.
These may be effects of temperature, pressure,
humidity, dust or of external electrostatic or
magnetic field.
OBSERVATIONAL ERROR: The error on account
of parallax is the observational error.
 Random Error

This is also known as residual error. These

errors are due to a multitude of small
factors which change or fluctuate from one
measurement to another. The happenings or
disturbances about which we are unaware
are lumped together and called “Random”
or “Residual”. Hence the errors caused by
these are called random or residual errors.
 Arithmetic Mean
 The most probable value of measured variable is
the arithmetic mean of the number of readings
taken.
x1  x2  .....xn  x
 It is given by x  
n n
Where x = arithmetic mean
 x1,x2,.. x3= readings of samples
 n= number of readings
 Deviation
 Deviation is departure of the observed reading
from the arithmetic mean of the group of readings.

d1  x1  X
d 2  x2  X
d 3  x3  X
d n  xn  X
d1  d 2  d 3  .....  d n 0
ie
( x1  X )  ( x2  X )  ( x3  X )  ..  ( xn  X )
( x1  x2  x3  ...  xn )  n X
n X  n X 0
 Standard Deviation

 The standard deviation of an infinite number of

data is defined as the square root of the sum of the
individual deviations squared divided by the
number of readings.

S .D  
2 2 2
d  d  d  ...  d
1 2 3
2
4

 d 2

 20observation 
n n

S .D  s 
2 2 2
d  d  d  ...  d
1 2 3
2
4

 d 2

 20observation 
n 1 n 1
 Variance

Variance S .D  
2 2

 d 2

n
 20observation 
Variance S .D  s
2 2

 d 2

n 1
 20observation 
 Problem
Question: The following 10 observation were
recorded when measuring a voltage:
41.7,42.0,41.8,42.0,42.1,
41.9,42.0,41.9,42.5,41.8 volts.
1. Mean
2. Standard Deviation
3. Probable Error
4. Range.
 Answer

 Mean=41.97 volt
 S.D=0.22 volt
 Probable error=0.15 volt
 Range=0.8 volt.
 Calibration
 Calibration of all instruments is important since it
affords the opportunity to check the instruments
against a known standard and subsequently to find
errors and accuracy.
 Calibration Procedure involve a comparison of the
particular instrument .
 Primary calibration.
 Secondary calibration.
 Direct calibration.
 Indirect calibration.
 Routine calibration. 30
 Standards

A standard is a physical representation of

a unit of measurement. The term ‘standard’
is applied to a piece of equipment having a
known measure of physical quantity.
 Types of Standards
– International Standards (defined based on
international agreement )

– Primary Standards (maintained by national

standards laboratories)

– Secondary Standards ( used by industrial

measurement laboratories)

– Working Standards ( used in general

laboratory)
THANK YOU