ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY
AAP 301
COURSE OUTLINE

1. Introduction to anatomy and physiology

1.1 Definitions
1.2 Scope /branches of anatomy
1.3 Nomenclatures of anatomy
1.4 Anatomical planes
ASSIGNMENT 1: IN ONE PAGE DISCUSS HOMEOSTASIS OF CALCIUM
2. The Skeletal system
3. The Muscular system
4. The Cardiovascular system
TEST 1
5. The Endocrine system
6. The lymphatic system
7. The GIT
8. The Respiratory system
TEST II
9. The Integumentary system (Skin)
10. The Reproductive system
11. The Nervous system
TEST III/ FINAL EXAMIANTION
INTRODUCTION

• The term “Anatomy” is derived from a Greek word “ Anatome”

ana=up, tome = cutting) first used by Aristotle about 2300 years ago,
meaning cutting up. Anatomy forms firm foundation of medicine. It is
the study of the normal structure and architecture (location) of the
body and of the relationship of its surrounding structure.
• Anatomy is quite a vast subject, in this respect our study of anatomy
for the purpose of meat hygiene will focus on a few systems relevant
to heat hygiene. In our situation the structure, location, size, shape,
colour, texture, and consistence of various organs and tissues of
specific systems will be important to understand.
SCOPE AND BRANCHES
(SUBDIVISIONS) OF ANATOMY
• 1. CADAVERIC (GROSS) ANATOMY:
• Also called macroscopic anatomy, Involves dissections of cadavers.
• Divided into: 1. Regional Anatomy and 2. Systemic
anatomy( osteology, myology, arthropology, neurology,
splanchnology e.g. GIT, urology, endocrinology.
• 2. Living anatomy: studied on living animals
• Involves inspection, palpation, percussion, auscultation, endoscopy,
gastroscopy. Sigmoidoscopy, cystoscopy, radiology,
electromyography etc
• 3 Applied anatomy = clinical anatomy
• 4. Embryology
• 5.Neuroanatomy
• 6. Histology
• Microscopic study of minute tissues (histiocytes)
• 7. Topographic anatomy
• Also = surface anatomy
• 8. Genetics
• Has 2 components: a. hereditary b. variation
• 9. Radiographic anatomy:
• 10. Sectional Anatomy
ANATOMICAL NOMENCLATURE IN
FOOD ANIMALS
• 1. Supine Position – recumbent position with face directed upwards
• Prone Position- recumbent position with face directed downwards
• Lithotomy position – lying supine with the buttocks at the edge of
the table, the hips and knees fully flexed and the feet strapped in
position of a part that is nearest to the head.
• Superior or cephalic or cranial – position nearest to the head.
• Inferior - near the feet
• Anterior –ventral or in front
• Medial- towards the median plane
• Lateral – further away from the median plane
• Ventral –
• Dorsal – back
• Caudal – towards the tail
ANATOMICAL PLANES

• Median or mid-sagittal plane- divides the body into right and left
halves
• Sagittal plane- any plane parallel to the median plane
• Coronal or frontal plane- a vertical plane which is at right angle to
the median plane
• Transverse plane- a plane at right angle to the a vertical plane
• Horizontal plane – plane parallel to the ground
• Oblique plane – any plane other than the aforementioned.
SPECIFIC TERMS FOR LIMBS

• Distal
• Radial
• Ulnar
• Tibia
• Fibular
THE SKELETON

• The skeleton comprise bones, cartilages and ligaments. The

vertebrate skeleton has an axial and an appendicular skeleton as well
as a splanchnic or visceral skeleton.
• Components of the axial skeleton:
1. Skull
2.Vertebrae
3. Sternum
4. Ribs
• Components of the Appendicular Skeleton
• 1. Bones of the forelimb-
• 2. Bones of the hindlimb-

• Components of the splanchnic or visceral skeleton;

• 1. Os cardis
• 2. Os penis
• 3. Hyoid bones.
THE AXIAL SKELETON

1. VERTEBRAE COLUMN:
Extends from the skull base to the tail. Five distinct sections of the V.
column viz:
Cervical - with 7 bones (fowl 14)
Thoracic – with 13 – 18 bones (fowl 7)
Lumber – 6- 7
Sacral – 4-5 fused to form the sacrum
Caudal (Coccygeal) – 15 - 23 ; fowl 6
CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRAE

1. Typical vertebrae : has the body, arch, and processes ( 2 anterior

& 2 posterior articular processes , i.e. the spinous processes and
the transverse processes.
FUNCTION OF THE VERTEBRAE CANAL: to encase and protect the
spinal cord.
2. Atypical Vertebrae: Are the atlas (C1), the axis (C2), and C7 ( has a
vertebrae prominence).
• C1 has no body, but a ring only
C2
Also called the axis, the front end of the body of the axis extends to
form the odontoid process (shaped like a tooth, especially in man) The
atlas carrying the head rotates around the odontoid process, hence C2
is called the axis.
THORACIC VERTEBRAE

• Range from 13 -18 (horse 18),

• Have long spinous processes which articulate with the ribs. Ox have
13, horse 18 and camel Has 12.
LUMBER VERTEBRAE
• 6-7, have long transverse processes.
THE RIBS :
Curved, form the skeleton of the lateral thoracic wall arranged serially
in pairs which correspond in number to the thoracic vertebrae.
The first ribs articulate ventrally with the sternum and are termed true
ribs or sternal ribs; while the remaining ones which ventrally articulate
with each other are called asternal or false ribs. The last ribs may
sometimes have free end hence called floating ribs.
The Sternum
• It’s the breast-bone, lying medially on the thorax. Its anterior end is
called the manubrium while the posterior end is called the xiphoid
cartilage.
The Skull
Are bones of the head, divided into into two groups:
• 1. Cranial Bones (Cranium):
• House the brain, organs of hearing and also peripheral organs of sight
and smell.
• Are mostly flat bones & some contain air spaces (sinuses) making the
head lighter. In older cattle the frontal sinus may several centimeters
deep thus complicating the penetration of the captive bolt pistol into
the brain.
• Facial Bones
• Form the skeleton of the oral and nasal cavities supporting the
pharynx, larynx and the root of the tongue.
THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON

• Components: the forelimb and the hindlimb

1. THE FORELIMB:
• Scapular (shoulder blade)- articulates with the humerus (upper arm),
in the shoulder joint. The humerus (long bone) articulates with the
radius (larger) & ulna in the elbow joint. The R & U form the forelimb.
The U in cattle is fused to the R, hence ruminants are unable to
supinate or pronate. The proximal end of the U forms the point of the
elbow or olecranon. Distally, the R & U articulates with fore-knee or
carpus ( comprise 6 bones arranged in 2 raws, 4 bones proximally and
2 in the distal raw. The lower raw articulates with the metacarpus or
cannon bone.
• Anatomically, the knee or carpus of domestic animals correspond to
the wrist of man. Behind the upper end of the large metacapal bone,
a small bone known as the splintbone is found.
THE HINDLIMB
• The two hipbones (coxal bones) are firmly attached to the sacrum by
ligaments. Each hip (coxal) bone is formed by 3 bones: ilium ( largest),
ischium and pubis (smallest). On the lateral side of each coxal bone is
a cupshed cavity called the acetabulum which articulated with head
of the femur to form the hipjoint.
• The two hip- bones unite with each other ventrally in the median
plane to form a tube like structure called the pelvic channel or cavity
( houses the rectum & the genital organs). The ventral line where the
hip (coxal) bones unite with each other is called the symphysis
(cartilagenous in young animals & ossified in aged animals.
• The Femur:
• Largest long bone. Attached proximally to the acetabulum by the
round ligament. Distally articulates with the tibia where they
together with the patella( knee cup)form the stifle joint which
corresponds to the knee joint in man.
• The Tibia and Fibula
• The fibula is rudimentary in ruminats. Distally articulates with tarsus
or hock which consist of 5 bones. One of the tarsal bones , the os
calcis has a large process called the tuber calcis or point of the hock
which correspond s to the heal in man. The metatarsal or digital
bones are similar to the metacarpal or digital bones of the forelimb.
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES

• There are about 200 bones classified into 4 classes according to their
shape:
1. Long Bones – e. g. femur
2. Short bones – e.g. Carpus and tarsus
3.Flat bones – e.g. scapular, skull bones
4. Irregular bones- e.g. vertebrae
CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS

• Defn of a Joint: joints are articulations between 2 or more bones or

cartilages. They are classified as follows:
1. Immovable or fixed joints e.g. pelvic symphysis, skull. They are
united by fibrous tissue or cartilage which in adults (old age) are
replaced by bone tissue (ossification).
2. Slightly movable joints :
e.g. intervertebrae joints. Opposing bone surfaces are covered by
hyalin cartilage. Between them is a fibrocartilaginous disc without
joint cavity.
3. MOVABLE OR TRUE JOINTS
Can be either simple or composite, e.g. carpal & tarsal joints. Consist of
the articular cartilage, joint capsule etc.

LIGAMENTS
Are strong fibrous bands which bind the articular surfaces together.
THE MOVEMENT OF JOINTS

1. Hinge joint: atlanto occipital & elbow joints. Allows extension and
flexion.
2. Pivot joints: e.g. atlanto- axial joint . Movement are ltd to rotation
segment around longitudinal axis of the axis.
3. Gliding joints e.g. carpo-metarcapal (CMP) joints
4. Ball and Socket Joints: hip and shoulder (glenohumeral )joint ,
where one of the joint surfaces is of a spherical curvature which
fits into the corresponding cavity of the other joint surface.
• This type of a joint allows the greatest variety of movement i.e.
flexion, extension, rotation abduction, adduction, circumduction.
 THE BONES

• The bone is one of the four (4) basic tissues ( nervous tissue, epithelial
tissue, muscle tissue & connective tissue) of the body consisting of
highly specialized living cells with extracellualar matrix (osteoid).
Mineralization of the matrix is by calcium phosphate hydroxyappatite
crystals [Ca10 (PO4)6 (OH)2] giving it rigidity & strength.
FUNCTIONS OF BONES

1. Support
2. Protection
3. Homeostatic regulation of blood calcium levels
through the parathyroid hormone PTH secreted by
the parathyroid glands. Its released whenever
blood Ca levels are low. PTH increases blood Ca
levels by stimulating osteoclasts ,which breakdown
bone to release calcium into the blood stream. The
second hormone involved in blood Ca regulation
besides phosphate regulation is calcitonin from
parafollicular cells (C.cells) of thyroid gland.
• Calcitonin opposes the action of
parathyroid H.(PTH) i.e. acts to reduce Ca
levels in the blood. It can also decrease
the resorption of Ca in the
kidneys ,leading to lower blood Ca
levels .The third hormone involved in Ca
regulation is calcitriol(1,25
dihydroxyvitamin D ,the active form of
vitamin D.
Functions of Ca:

1. build strong bones and teeth (decrease osteoporosis)

2. Blood clotting
3. Regulation of membrane permeability to sodium(Na).If Ca levels
get too low (hypocalcemia) membrane permeability to Na
increases convulsions or muscle spasms can result.
4. N.B some diuretics (thiazide e.g. hydrochlorothiazide (microlide)
and chlorthalidones) have a side effect of increasing Ca levels
(hypercalceamia) by preventing calcium from being released in
the urine which can lead to kidneys stones.
• N.B. Caffeine can slightly reduce calcium absorption. The outer
surface of the bone is covered by periosteum. Its inner cellular layer
is osteogenic. Sharpey’s fibers pass through the periosteum.
• CELLS OF BONES
1. Osteoprogenitor cells- spindle shaped cells found in the
endosteum and periosteum.
2. Osteoblasts- bone forming cells- synthesize matrix (osteoid)
3. Osteocytes- differentiated bone cells (mature) found in bone matrix
called lacunae.
4. Osteoclasts- bone resorbing cells . Are large multinucleate cells lying
in depressions resorbed from the bone called howships lacunae. PTH
stimulates osteoclastic activity and release Ca from the bone; whereas
calcitonin inhibits osteoclastic activity.
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES

• 1. Mature ( lamellar)
• 1.1 Compact bone
• 1.2 Spongy (cancellous bone
2. Immature (Non lamellar)

1.1 Compact Bone

Mature bone with high proportion of matrix present in the diaphysis
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

• Defn: The meat consists mainly of muscles with varying amount of

connective tissue.
• MAIN FUNCTION:
1. Locomotion:
2. Respiration- diaphragm [
3. Phonation – e.g. Vocal cord muscles- cricothyroid muscles
4. Facial expression, nasalis muscles
5. Protection- e.g abdominal muscles ( transverse abdominis, ext,
abd, internal abd etc)
6. Holds the framework (skeleton) together
7. Propulsion of food - peristalsis
8. Pumping of blood- myocardia
9. Micturition etc-

TYPES OF LOCOMOTION OR GAIT USED BY FOUR LEGGED ANIMALS

1. Walking – only one foot in four leaves the ground at a time.
2. Running- Only one foot touches the ground at a time.
3. Pacing – The forefoot and hindfoot on the same side of the body
touches the ground at the same time, e.g. the natural gait of camels. A
pacing animal characteristically sways from side to side.
4. Trotting- in trotting the left forefoot and right hindfoot touch the
ground at the same time, followed by the right forefoot and the left
forefoot.
TYPES OF MUSCLES

There are three types of muscles:

1. Skeletal Muscles
2. Cardiac muscles
3. Smooth muscles
CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCLES
Structurally, on the basis of presence or absence of striations muscles
are subdivided into two groups: striated and non striated
(smooth)muscles. The striated group is further subdivided into skeletal
and cardiac types.
CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCLES

• Muscular tissue

Striated Nonstriated

Smooth muscle

Skeletal Cardiac
SKELETAL MUSCLE

• Forms the bulk of the skeletal tissue of the body. Its supplied by
somatic motor nerves that transmits signals back to the skeletal
muscles, organs and skin from the brain. Somatic motor neurons
originate in the central N.S. and project their axons to skeletal
muscles (e.g. muscles of the limbs, abdominal and intercostal
muscles) which are involved in movement.
• Skeletal muscles consist of parallel bundles of long multinucleated
fibers which in turn are made of myofibrils, actin (thin) and myosin
(thick) and tropomyosin. They exhibit cross striations under the
microscope.
• They are under voluntary control ( conscious control). However, some
skeletal muscles are involved at unconscious level, e.g. breathing,
blinking, swallowing and actions of perineal muscles.
IMPORTANT MUSCLES RELEVANT TO
MEAT INSPECTION
• To the anatomist, each muscles has its own name. However, meat
inspectors at this level only need to knows those muscles that are
relevant to meat inspection,

• MUSCLES OF MUSTICATION
• Temporalis Muscle:
• It’s a fan shaped muscle. Origin: arises from the temporal & frontal
bones. Insertion- coronoid process and ramus of the mandible.
Action: Elevates & retracts the mandible and assists in side to side
movement of the mandible.
• Masseter muscle:
• Origin; maxilla & zygomatic arch
• Insertion; angle & ramus of the mandible.
• Action; elevates the mandible while closing the mouth, also assist in
side to side movements of the mandible.
• Medial pterygoid muscle:
• Origin- medial surface of the lateral portion of the pterygoid process
of sphenoid bone and maxilla. Insertion -angle and ramus of the
mandible.
• Lateral Pterygoid muscle:
• Origin: greater wing and lateral surface of lateral portion of the
pterygoid process of sphenoid bone. Insertion: Condyle of mandible.
• Action: protracts mandible and opens the mouth and moves
mandible from side to side.
• INNERVATION: All the muscles of mastication are supplied by the
mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve [Cranial nerve(CN) V], a
mixed n.
MUSCLES OF THE CARCASS
RELEVANT TO MEAT INSPECTION
1. Muscles of the Forelimb
Extensor Compartment
The muscle in this compartment is the triceps brachii. It has 3 heads of
origin.
2. TRICEPS BRACHII
1.1 The Long head arises from the the infraglenoid turbercle of the
scapula.
1.2 The lateral head arises from the posterior surface of the humerus
1.3 The Medial head arises from the lower posterior surface of the
humerus. This is the thickest and most bulk of three.
Insertion of the T. brachii: olecranon process of the ulna (upper
surface)
Nerve supply: the radial nerve.
Action: extensor of the forelimb.
2. Anconeus muscle- is another small muscle in the extensor
compartment. Innervation- radial n.
OTHER MUSCLES

• 2 Longissimuss dorsi
• Is the largest muscle in the body. Its an epaxial muscle i.e. lies above
the main axis of the vertebral column. Origin- anterior end of the
sacrum & ilium. Insertion: neck & back i.e. the transverse & spinous
process.
• Action: is antagonistic to the rectus abdominis , an hypaxial muscle,
i.e. lies below the axis of the V. column. They work together to move
the back.
3. The Intercostal Muscles
These muscles are active in respiration.
Fn: to narrow the intercostal space and to prevent the thoracic wall
from being pushed out or pulled in during respiration.
Importance: Rarely examined for C. bovis.
4. The Diaphragm:
It’s a broad , single dome-shaped sheet of tendons and muscles
separating the thorax from the abdomen.
It consists of a fleshy rim which may be subdivided into costal and
sternal parts , a lumber part which is composed of two crura: the right
and left crus. The centre is tendinous.
• Fn of the Diaphragm: Is the principal muscle of inspiration.
• STRUCTURES THAT PASS THROUGH THE DIAPHRAM
1. The posterior vena cava
2. The oesophagus (gullet)
3. The aorta
4. The cisterna chyli ( the main lymphatic duct from the posterior
part of the body.
MUSCLES OF THE PLUCK

• 1. THE HEART MUSCLE

• Also called the myocardium- The myocardium forms a thick middle
layer called the atriaventricular septum.
• Lt ventricle
• Lt atrium
• Rt Ventricle
• Rt atrium
 THE CVS

Is a system comprising of the heart, blood

vessels and the blood and is responsible for
supply of nutrients, oxygen and the removal of
waste products from cells.
• THE HEART
• Hollow muscular organ acting as a pump,
enclosed in the pericardial sac, in the
midmediastinum between the lungs.
• The epicardium, which is the visceral layer of the pericardiun, covers
the the myocardium
• The myocardium has a smooth lining called the endocardium.
CIRCULATION
• Circulation consist of two pumps or circulation:
• 1. Systemic circulation:
• involves the right side of heart- Lt atrium and LV via aorta, arteries
arterioles and capillaries to tissues (oxygenated blood).
• Return through IVC & SVC TO THE RT SIDE of the heart(RV & RA)
(carbonated blood).
2. PULMONARY CIRCULATION
• RV & RA via pulmonary artery – two branches to the lungs
carbonated blood
• Return via pulmonary veins to the left side of the heart (LA & LV)
(oxygenated blood).

• 3. CORONARY CIRCULATION
• Is the circulation of blood in the blood vessels that supply the
myocardium. Involves the Rt coronary artery and the Lt coronary
artery which supply the heart. The heart is drained by several cardiac
veins which pass into the coronary sinus and the Rt atrium.
• NOTE: The wall of Lt ventricle is 3X thicker than that of the RV.
• The mitral V. & its chordae tendineae (thread like bands of fibrous
tissue –attach to valves and papillary muscles) are stronger than the
tricuspid
• A certain amount of blood clot is found normally in each of the
ventricles after death.
• OX HEART
• Its reddish brown in color in all food animals
• Has 3 ventricular furrows
• Two ossa cardis (cartilaginous until 4 wks after birth, dvp at the base
of the heart in the aortic wall.
• Wt 1.8 – 2.2kg
• In pregnancy & septiceamia , it is frequently pale, flabby & friable.
• SHEEP
• 3 ventricular furrows,
• Later years, a small os cordis dvp on the rt side
• Wt 85- 113g

• PIG
• 2 ventricular furrows
• More rounded apex than in the sheep
• Heart is cartilage ossified in older animals
• Wt 170 – 198g

• HORSE
• 2 ventricular furrows
• aortic cartilage ossifies in older horses
• Wt 2.7kg average, greater in race horses,
• FOWL HEART
• Pointed apex,
• Unlike mammalian blood, the avain RBCs are nucleated

• PORTAL CIRCULATION
• Impt in spread of infection (parasitic & bacteria infection)
THROUGHOUT THE BODY.
• The portal vein is formed by two main branches : the gastrosplenic &
mesenteric veins, which drain the stomach & intestines, besides the
pancreas. Venous blood from these organs is conveyed by the portal
vein to the liver. The liver is drained by the hepatic veins which enter
the posterior vena cava, wherein the blood is conveyed to the heart.
• SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PORTAL CIRCULATION
• Infections (bacteria or parasitic) which gain entry to the portal vein
may be arrested within the sinusoids of the liver. However, the liver
being an imperfect filter, some of the organisms may pass through to
the heart & hence to the lungs; e,g, hydatid cysts may be found in the
lungs, and occasionally liver flukes in the lungs of cattle & older sheep
but not in pigs.
FETAL CIRCULATION

• The fetal circulation plays a significant role in the occurrence of

congenital TB in calf & in the distribution of lesions. Fetus in utero
receives oxygen & nutrients from the mother (NOT directly from the
blood) but through intimate contact of mucous membrane of the
maternal uterus with the fetal membrane. This contact is attained by
means of the cotyledons of the placenta.
• Corresponding to each maternal cotyledon is a fetal cotyledon
containing fine branches of the umbilical vein. The branches are
received into the sponge-like structure of the maternal cotyledon &
close contiguity of the two blood supplies is thus assured. Fetal blood
is conveyed from the placenta by the umbilical veins (which are two
in the cattle and sheep) to the umbilicus where they join to form
single vein.
• This main umbilical vein then passes forward along the floor of the
abdominal wall and enters the liver at the umbilical fissure.
• The umbilical vein is the only fetal vessel which carries unmixed
arterial blood.
• In the fetal calf a portion of the blood borne by the umbilical vein,
having entered the liver passes into the ductus venosus and thus
discharges directly into the PV Cava insteady of passing through the
liver substance.
• The lungs do not function in the fetus, as oxygen is supplied to it
through the placenta.
• Blood which reaches the right auricle is therefore largely directed
from the right to left auricle by way of the foramen ovale, an orifice
situated in the interauricular wall.
• A certain small amount of blood, mostly from the head, does pass
from the right auricle to the RV and into the pulmonary artery, but a
large portion of this blood passes from the pulmonary
artery into the ductus arteriosus, a connecting vessel to the posterior
aorta, and consequently does not reach the lungs. The blood supply to
the fetal lungs, then, is the minimum amount required for the growth
of these organs.
Blood which supplies the fetal structure through the aorta & its
branches is eventually collected by two umbilical arteries which arise
from the
• Iliac arteries in the pelvic cavity. These pass back to the umbilicus and
thence to the placenta where the blood receives fresh oxygen and
nutrients.
• EVENTS AFTER BIRTH
• Umbilical arteries retract, and like the umbilical vein, ductus
venosus, and ductus arteriosus become cord like and cease to
function, while the foramen ovale becomes occluded.
• The umbilical vein remains open for a day or so;( but filled with a
physiological thrombus) thus giving access to pathogens causing
navel ill.
• The placenta is an excellent filter preventing the passage of bacteria
into the umbilical vein(UV), but some pathogens, at times enter the
UV from the placenta, though some may get trapped in the fetal liver
while some may find their way to the heart and lungs.
• THE UMBILICAL CORD (UC)
• Its about 23 -46 cm long.
• In both cow and ewe, the UC is embraced in a jelly like tissue which
contains the following vessels: two umbilical veins, two umbilical
arteries and the urachus- the tube which drains the fetal bladder.
• Blood volume:
• Blood consists of a suspension of cells or corpuscles (red & white) &
platelets in a straw coloured fluid called plasma. It constitutes about
one thirteenth of the TBW.
• Cattle- 55ml/kg, cat- 55ml/kg, dog- 86ml/kg
• ‘Men- 5-6 liters
• Women 4-5 l
Composition of Blood

• Blood plasma is slightly alkaline. Plasma contains water -91% ,

proteins 8%, salts 0.9%.
1. Plasma proteins contain- albumin (formed in liver, fn-maintain
plasma osmotic pressure, 3-5g/100ml of blood), globulin (formed-
liver, fn-immune response, transport of hormones e.g. T4 & T3;
2-3g/100ml) and fibrinogen ( synthesized in the liver, fn-
coagulation ;0.32- 0.49g/100ml of blood.
2. Nutrients- monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids & glycerol,
vitamins
3. Inorganic salts- NaCl, Fe, Ca, Cu, I, K, phosphorus etc
4. Organic materials- urea, uric acids, creatinine, ammonium salts,
bilirubin & cholesterol.
5. Enzymes
6. Hormones
7. Antibodies
8. Gases- 02, C02, nitrogen
9. cells: leukocytes, erythrocytes, thrombocytes (platelets)
CLASSIFICATION OF LEUKOCYTES

• Based on the presence or absence of granules:

1. Granulocytes or polymorphonuclear leukocytes(3 types):
1.1 Neutrophils (purple bcoz it takes up both dyes below.
1.2 Eosinophils (red acid dye- eosin)
1.3 Basophils (alkaline- methylene blue color)
2. Agranulocytes leukocytes (2 types)
2.1 Monocytes
2.2 Lymphocytes
LEUKOPOIESIS

• Granulocytes- dvp from stem cells (haemocytoblast) in the BM

• FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD CELLS
• N- 60 -70% of WBC, phagocytosis, attraction by chemotaxis.
Neutophilia, neutropenia
• E- 1-4%, eosinophilia in allergic conditions ( e.g. asthma, food & drug
sensitivities) & parasitic conditions. Act by neutralising histamine.
• Agranular leukocytes:
• Monocytes – 3-8% , large mononuclear cells, dvp from monoblasts in
the BM. Dvp into macrophages, fn- phagocytosis. Increase in
microbial infection and collagen disease.
• The Macrophage System:
• Microglia – brain
• Histiocytes – connective tissue
• Kupffer’s cells – in liver sinusoids
• Alveolar macrophages in the lungs
• Tissue macrophages in the spleen, lymph nodes & bone marrow
(BM).
• LYMPHOCYES- 25 – 30 % of the total WBC.
• Dvp from haemocytoblasts (stem cell in the BM). Fn – respond to
antigen & foreign materials, They are of three types:
• 1. T- lymphocytes- activated in the thymus.
2. B- lymphocytes- activated in the lymphoid tissue, and in the walls of
the intestines. Smaller than T lymphocytes
3. Natural killer cells (NKC)- attack microbes & certain spontaneously
arising tumor cells. Play a role in host rejection of both tumors and
virally infected cells. Cancer cells and infected cells often lose their
MHC I, leaving them vulnerable to NKC. Once the decision to kill is
made, the Nkcells release cytotoxic granules containing perforin and
granzymes, which lead to lysis of the target cells

NOTE: Both T and B lymphocytes circulate in the blood and settle in

the lymph nodes, spleen and aggregated lymphatic nodules in the
intestines.
• T- cells are sensitized when they encounter with an antigen for the
first time. The effector cells act directly against antigens with
phagocytes. The memory cells confer cell-mediated immunity. These
lymphocytes produce lymphokinase that attract macrophages to the
site. The lymphotoxin kills foreign cells , e,.g. organ transplants; and
interferons prevent virus reproduction inside the cells.
• T cells also attack cancer cells.

• B lymphocytes are stimulated by both microbes and their toxins.

They develop into plasma cells which secrete antibodies
(immunoglobulins). The antibodies promote phagocytosis of foreign
particles and neutralize toxins.
• The immune system works by a clonal selection process whereby T or
B cells are grouped into different clones or sets. Each set consists of
cells committed before being exposed to a particular antigen, for
making a particular antibody.
• RED BLOOD CELLS
• Small biconcave discs about 7.2um in diameter and 2.2nm thick.
• Give the blood its colour
• Manufactured in the BM, especially of the sternum, vertebrae, ribs.
In early life, they are made in the long bones.
• In fetal life they are formed in the liver, kidneys, spleen & muscles.
• Each RBC has a life span of about of about 120 days after which it is
broken down and replaced by a new one.

• SPLEEN ( MELT, LIEN)

• Not essential for life. In a fetus it forms red and white cells,
lymphocytes being produced during the life of the animal.
• Acts as a store for RBCs & for the destruction of old RBC& platelets.
Also forms antibodies, thus in certain diseases anthrax and
trypanosomiasis, the spleen becomes very large.
FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD

1. Transportation e.g. 02, nutrients, hormones etc

2. Protection
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• Is one of the two systems that maintains functioning of cells , tissues
and organs in order to maintain internal homeostasis:
• 1. Neural control- is mediated via stimulation of nerves & actions of
neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) released at the synaptic
ends. Examples of NTs- Ach, dopamine, glutamate, serotonin,
norepinephrine, gamma –aminobutyric acid ( GABA), histamine
• 2.Endocrine control- is mediated via hormones & growth factors
secreted by endocrine glands in the body.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS

• Are collections of specialized cells with secretory function but do not

have ducts, hence called ductless glands.
• Synthesize & secrete physiologically active substances known as

hormones directly into the blood circulation.

• Hormones act as chemical messengers, secreted in small quantities in
response to specific stimulation & act on defined target Cells, tissues
& organs.
CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES

Structurally classified as:

1.Steroid hormones: mineralocorticoids (aldosterone –in the RAAS –fn
regulates BP & fluid balance), glucocorticoids (betamethasone,
beclomethasone, budesonide), sex hormones, 1,25 dihydroxy
cholecalciferol.
2. Proteins & polypeptide hormones: anterior & posterior pituitary
hormones, hypothalamic hormones, parathormones, calcitonin,
insulin, glucagon, gastrin, secretin, angiotensin
3. Amino acid derivatives: Epinephrine, norepinephrine, thyroid
hormones.
TRANSPORTATION OF HORMONES
The hormones are transported in circulation either bound to plasma
proteins like albumin ( steroid and thyroid hormones) or lie free in
plasma (protein hormones).
FUNCTION OF HORMONES
They regulate various biochemical & metabolic reactions in the body.
They act by affecting membrane permeability, gene expression,
activation.
of enzymes, activation of tyrosine – kinase system.
• REGULATION OF SECRETION OF HORMONES
• It is brought about by the following:
1.Negative feedback and positive feedback mechanisms. Increase in
circulating levels of a hormone stimulates the organ and its higher
centres to inhibit further synthesis and release of the same hormone,
e.g. homeostatic systems, - blood sugar regulation, ( insulin lower
blood glucose when levels are high; glucagon raises blood glucose
when levels are low).Positive feedback is the reverse of this.
• Positive feedback occurs when a product feeds back to incease its
own production. Example is milk production by a mother for her
baby. As the baby suckles, nerve messages from the nipple causes
the pituitary gland to secrete prolactin
 2.Neural control: The secretion of a hormone influenced by external
stimuli ( e.g. taste & smell stimulate the secretion of GIT hormone) &
internal stimuli, e.g. stress and pain
3. Autonomic hypothalamic control: This is responsible for the
circadian (day & night) rhythm of secretion of various hormones. It
controls the diurnal, seasonal and developmental variation in secretion
of hormones.
THE VARIOUS ENDOCRINE
GLANDS
GLAND LOCATION COMMENT HORMONE

Pituitary Hypophyseal fossa Adenohypophysis - anterior FSH,LH, TSH, ACTH,

lobe Prolactin, GH;
Neurohypophysis – posterior Vasopressin (ADH),
lobe Oxytocin,
Hypothalamus Synthesizes posterior GnRH, TRH, CRH, GHIH,
pituitary hormones (ADH, GHRH, PRF, dopamine
oxytocin)
Pineal Roof of 3rd ventricle Melatonin, -ve on GnRH Melatonin

Thyroid T3, T4- growth, metabolic

rate; calcitonin – Ca reg.
Parathyroids Posterior aspect of PTH - Ca balance
thyroid gland.
Thymus Sup. mediastinum Proliferation of T. Thymosin
lymphocytes
Adrenal Aldosterone, cortisol,
epinephrine, norep
Islets of Langerhans Pancreas A cells- glucagon, B cell-
insulin, D cells-
somatostatin, F cells-
p .polypeptide
Ovary Estrogen, progesterone,
inhibin B.
Testis

Kidney Renin, erythropoetin

GIT mucosa Gastrin, CCK, Secretin,

GIP, VIP, Somatostatin
CONTINOUS ASSESSMENT,
27.11.20
ANSWER BOTH QUESTIONS. Duration - 1hour
1. Discuss precisly the regulation of secretion of chemical messengers
(20) Marks).
2. Briefly discuss all of the following (20 marks):
2.1 Foetal flesh
2.2 Veal
2.3 Obstructive jaundice
2.4 List the carcass lymph nodes
CA

• BRIEFLY DISCUSS ANY TWO OF THE FOLLOWING- 5 MARKS EACH

• 1. PORTAL CIRCULATION
• 2. ATYPICAL VERTEBRAE
• 3. PDA AND ITS CLINICAL PRESENTATION
• 4. LYMPH NODES OF THE HEAD
• 5. MUSCLES OF THE HEAD
• DURATION: 20 MINUTES
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

• DEF
• This is a body system that is responsible for specific resistance to pathogens or responsible for conferring
immunity to the body,
• FUNCTION
• 1.0 Protecting the body from illnesses (Immune response)
• -1.1 Lymphocytes aided by macrophages recognize foreign cells , microbes, toxins and cancer cells and respond
to them in two ways:
• 1.1.1 In cell mediated immune response, T. cells destroy the intruder by causing them to rupture or by releasing
cytotoxic substances (cell killing)
• 1.1.2 In antibody mediated immune response , B. cells differentiate into plasma cells that produce antibody
proteins.
• . Maintaining body fluids levels by removing all fluids that leak out of the blood vessels
• (tissue drainage)
• . Absorbing digestive tract fats ( fat or dietary lipid (chyle) transport). Also transport lipid soluble vitamisn
(A,D,E,&K)
• . Removing cellular waste
• COMPONENTS:
• LYHPH NODES OF THE HEAD
• LYMPH NODES OF THE CARCASS
• LYMPHNODES OF THE PLUCK
• COMPONENTS OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
• 1. Lymph – derived from blood plasma as a transudate from the
blood. It is actually interstitial fluid in lymphatic vessels.
• 2 Lymphatic vessles and lymph ducts
• 3. Lymphocytes
• 4. Lymphy nodes
• 5. Other lymphatic tissues – tonsils, spleen, thymus, payer’s patches
THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT-
BOVINE
• DEF
• FUCNTION-ingestion, motility (mechanical digestion), chemical
digestion, absorption, excretion(defaecation)
• COMPONENTS
• - MOUTH (Oral cavity, lips, tongue, salivary glands
• - OESOPHAGUS
• -A COMPLEX OF FOUR STOMACHS (
• SMALL INTESTINE (duodenum,jejunum, ileum)
• LARGE INTESTINE ( cecum, colon [ascending, transverse, descending,
sigmoid colonies]– rectum, anus
• The Liver, gall bladder
• The Exocrine Pancreas
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

• THE RES APPARATUS

• NASAL CAVITY
• PHARYNX
• LARYNX
• THE TRACHEA
• BRONCHI
• LUNGS
• NASAL CAVITY:
-Links ext environment and pharynx
-Houses the peripheral part of the olfactory apparatus- fn sense of
smell
• THE PHARYNX
- Funnel- shaped musculo-membranous sac
• THE LARYNX
- Enlarged portion of the trachea
- Formed by a large number of cartilages which are surrounded by
ligaments and muscles
- The anterior ventral cartilage is called the epiglottis.
- Epiglottis – shields slit like opening of the larynx during swallowing.
-The larynx also contains vocal cords

THE TRACHEA
Extends from larynx to hilus of the lungs – dvds into 2- main bronchi
-Has a series of cartilaginous rings that keep it permanently patent
Lining of trachea covered by mucus m. with
• This MM has innumerable microscopic hair like projections called
cilia.
• Cilia – sweep the mucus and dust towards the mouth
• In ruminants the free end of cartilages rings are separated and
uptuned to form a dorsal ridge.
• In porcine the end overlap dorsally leaving no dorsal ridge.
• THE BRONCHI
• - 3 main bronchi in cattle, sheep, goats and pigs: left , right and
accessory
• Divide into bronchioles which divide further into respiratory
bronchioles which branch into alveolar ducts which are distended at
the end to form alveoli.
• LUNGS
- Two- left and right, well lobulated in bovine compared to those of
sheep and goat.
- Lt lung- has 3 lobes: apical, cardiac and diaphragmatic
- Rt lung- has 4 -5 lobes:apical cardiac, diaphragmatic and
intermediate.

- FOETAL LUNG
- Smaller- firmer- does not crepitate – sinks in water- pale gray in color
THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
THE SKIN
• Forms the largest organ and external covering of the body. It consists
of mainly three layers: VIZ- epidermis, dermis and hypodermis.
1. THE EPIDERMIS: Comprising of keratinized squamous epithelium.
Originates or its derived from the ectoderm.
2. THE DERMIS : Originates (derived) from the mesoderm.It is
devided into two layers, viz
papillary layer and reticular layer.
2.1 PAPILLARY LAYER: Is made up of thin fine interlacing collagen fibers,
blood vessels, lymphatics, capillary loops and sensory nerve endings.
2.2 The reticular LAYER: consist of irregular collagen and elastic fibers
as well as fibroblasts which lay these fibers, lymphocytes and
macrophages as well as blood vessls.
• 3. THE HYPODERMIS:
• Contains fatty tissue. Its equivalent to subcutaneous fascia.
• FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN
• 1. Protection( physical barrier by the stratum corneum; immune
response by Langerhans cells) against mechanical, chemical, thermal,
UV rays, microorganisms
• 2. Prevents water loss (dehydration)
3. Maintain haemostasis
4. Aids in body temperature regulation
5. Synthesis of vitamin D from ergosteral by the action of UV rays of
the sun.
6. Sensory organ- has receptors for touch, pain,pressure and
temperature (PPTT)
7. Storage organ skin stores chlorides
8 Absorption- of oily substances
9. Secretion- of sweat and sebum
10. Excretion – of excess water , salts and waste products through sweat.
11. PH regulation – some acis is exceted through sweat.
SKIN APPENDAGES
1. Hair, 2. sweat glands, 3. sebaceous glands, 4. Nails, 5.Mammary
glands
• Glomus bodies- highly convulated portions in the walls of
arteries,veins, or AV shunts. Fn- regulation of temperature.
• COLOUR OF THE SKIN
• The colour of the skin depends on :
1. Melanin
2. Oxyhaemoglobin present in the dermis
3. Carotene gives yellow color
4. Hemosiderin – gives golden brown colour
5. Bilirubin- yellowish brown imparts a yellow discoloration in
jaundice.
CELLS OF THE EPIDERMIS
1. Keratinocytes- are the predominant cells arising from the basal
layer. Fn- produce keratin which forms the epidermal water
barrier.
2. Melanocytes- are present in the basal layer. Fn: synthesis and
release of a brown pigment called melanin, which is responsible for the
color of the skin. Melanoblasts are derived from the neural crest which
gives rise to melanocytes which secrete melanin. Melanin secretion
increases when exposed to UV rays thus conferring a protective layer.
In old age melanin secretion decreases hence increased risk of cancer.
• Tyrosine is converted to dopa which polymarises into melanin bound
to protein. In albonos there is lack of tyrosinase enzyme which
converts tyrosine to melanin resulting into lack of pigment in the skin
and hair.
• Melanin pigment increases in the case of hormonal imbalance in
Addison’s disease.
3. Langerhan’s cell- present in all layers of the epidermis. Fn – are
immune cells
4. Merkel cells: are specialized touch receptors, scattered among cells
of the basal layer.
LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS
Layers of the epidermis are best seen in thick skin. The epidermis is
lined by stratified squamous epithelium and shows the following
layers:
1. Stratum basale- it is the germinal layer and shows mitotic activity
( also taking place in the stratum spinosum.
2. Stratum spinosum – prickle cell layer. Actice protein sysnthesis takes
place here.
3. Stratum granulosum
4. Stratum Incidum – which is a subdivision of the st corneum- consist
of dead and dying cells. The cells are flattened without nuclei and
other organelles. Instead, they are filled with mature keratin.
• SKIN CIRCULATION:
Occurs at the junction of the dermis and the epidermis and is called
cutaneous plexus.
Below the dermal papilla its called the subpapillary plexus.
There are no blood vessels in the epidermis. It receives its nutrition by
diffusion from the dermis.
• SWEAT GLAND
• There are two types of sweat glands,VIZ;
1. Merocrine (eccrine) sweat glands- found all over the body except
lips, gums and gland penis.
2. Apocrine sweat glands- present in axillary, pubic and perianal
regions. Become functional at puberty and secrete via a duct into
the hair follicle.
• SEBACEOUS GLANDS
• Found in the dermis. Secretes sebum, an oily secretion that keeps
skin smooth to prevent drying. Sebum also has antifungal and
antibacterial properties.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

• This is a higher centre system of the body that receives, signal and
integrate information. In so doing it controls the function of the body
organs and their interaction. It is responsible for sensation of the
external and internal environment as well as consciousness and
unconsciousness activities
 • COMPONENTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM (NS)
• NS

PNS
CNS

Brain Ganglia
Spinal cord Nerves
• The brain consist of:
1. Forebrain (Prosencephalon)
• 2. Midbrain (Mesencephalon)
• 3. Hindbrain (Rhomboencephalon)

NERVES:

Cranial ns 12
Spinal ns 31 Peripheral ns
• Nervous tissue consist of two types of cells, namely neurons and
supporting cells.
• 1. THE NEURON
• The neurons is the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous
system. It consist of a cell body, dendrites and an axon. Groups of cell
bodies in the CNS are called nuclei.
• 2. SUPPORTING CELLS
• Supporting cells in the CNS are: neuroglia, oligodendrocytes,
astrocytes, microglia and ependymal cells.
Support Cell Type Function

Neuroglia Make the interstitium, nutritive

Oligodendrocytes Forms myelin

Astrocytes Form the B,B,B

Microglia phagocytic

Ependymal CSF formation

Schwann (found the PNS) Myelinate or envelope axons

• Functionally, the NS consist of the somatic system and the autonomic
nervous system (ANS). The ANS is
• LOBES OF THE BRAIN AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Brain location FUNCTION
lobes
Frontal lobe Front Emotions, personality, actions, skills, movement
contral, executive functions- problem solving,
planning, decision making, behaviour contral.
Temporal Sides of ears Sound processing & understanding, face
lobe recognition, memory (hippocampus)

Parietal lobe Behind the frontal 1. Make sense of what we touch (smooth, sharp
lobe & above the or soft or firm. Visuospatial processing, skills
temporal lobe such as maths, spelling, fine motor
movement(tying shoe laces
Occipital Back of the brain Vision (visual perception – making sence of what
we see