Mineralo

gy
 Importance of Mineralogy
What is Mineralogy?
in Civil Engineering
Mineralogy is the study of 1. Soil and Rock Analysis
minerals that make up soil, 2. Construction Materials
rocks, and construction 3. Durability and
materials. It helps engineers Weathering
understand how different 4. Road and Pavement
minerals affect the strength, Engineering
durability, and stability of 5. Tunneling and Excavation
structures. 6. Corrosion Prevention
Crystallography is the study of the formation, structure,
and properties of crystals. It helps in understanding the
symmetry elements that define different crystallographic
systems.
Five Symmetry Elements of Crystallographic
Systems
1. Identity (E)
2. Proper Axis/Rotational Axis of Symmetry
(Cn)
3. Plane of Symmetry/Mirror Plane (σ)
4. Center of Symmetry/Inversion Center (i)
5. Rotoinversion (ȵ)
 Physical Properties of
- can be used to easily identify
Minerals
minerals
1. Color 7. Magnetism
2.Streak 8. Tenacity
3.Hardness 9. Luster
4.Cleavage and Fracture 10. 0dor
5.Crystalline structure 11. Specific
6.Transparenct or Gravity
diaphaneity
1. Color - usually the property used to identify minerals
easily. It is the result of the way minerals absorb light.
Some Colors of Quartz
2. Streak - is the color of the mineral in powder form for
opaque minerals, if you rub the sample across a streak
plate, it will leave a colored powder. This streak is
distinctive for minerals and is used to identify minerals.
3. Hardness - refers to the measure of the mineral’s
resistance to scratching. Minerals with higher numbers will
scratch minerals below. To measure the relative hardness
of minerals, the Moh's scale is used.
4. Cleavage and Fractures - Cleavage – due to weak
used to describe how minerals bonds in the crystal structure.
break into pieces. Some
minerals split along flat surfaces
(called cleavage planes) when
struck hard--this is called
mineral cleavage.
Halite Flourite
Other minerals break unevenly (NaCl) (CaF2)
along rough or curved surfaces--
this is called fracture

A few minerals have both

cleavage and fracture ( mica )
Fractur
eRose Quartz – Conchoidal
Conchoidal Fracture – Quartz
Fracture
5. Crystalline structure -
crystal lattice, tells how a
mineral’s crystals are
arranged. A hand lens is a
necessary tool in checking for
crystalline structure.

Crystal solid - form regular

repeating three dimensional
crystal lattice amorphous
solid - forms aggregates that
have particular order or
arrangement.
6. Transparency or 7. Magnetism - indicates the
diaphaneity - indicates the ability of a mineral to attract or
extent of light that can pass repel other minerals
through the mineral.

8. Tenacity - level of
resistance or reaction of
minerals to stress such as
crushing, bending, breaking, or
tearing.
9. Luster - refers to the Categories:
reaction of a mineral to light. Metallic or Non-metallic
It determines how brilliant or
dull the mineral is. Metallic – luster of metal –
shines like a hard metal.

Non-metallic minerals are

shiny because they are
transparent or semi-
transparent.
Examples of Mettalic luster: Examples of Non-Mettalic
luster:
Pyrite Vitreous-
(FeS2)
quartz
Silky-
Galena plagioclase
(PbS) feldspar

Non-
Earthy Metallic
metallic
hematite hematite
and
10. Odor - a distinct 11. Specific Gravity -
smell of a mineral that is a measure of the
is usually released from density of a mineral.
a chemical reaction Determines how heavy
when subjected to the mineral is by its
water, heat, air or weight to water.
friction
STUDY OF FOLLOWING ROCK FORMING
MINERALS:
QUARTZ FAMILY
FIELDSPAR FAMILY
AUGITE
HORNBLENDE
BIOTITE
MUSCOVITE
CALCITE
GARNET
Quartz is one of the most well-known
minerals on earth. It occurs in basically all
mineral environments, and is the
important constituent of many rocks.
Quartz is also the most varied of all
minerals, occurring in all different forms,
habits, and colors. There are more variety
names given to Quartz than any other
mineral. Although the Feldspars as a
group are more prevalent than Quartz, as
an individual mineral Quartz is the most
common mineral.
Chalcedony is the microcrystalline form
of Quartz, forming only occurs in
microscopic, compacted crystals
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF QUARTZ

Chemical Formula: SiO2

Composition: Silicon Dioxide
Color: Colorless, white, purple, pink, brown, and black. Also, gray, green orange, yellow,
blue, and red. Sometimes multicolored or banded.
Streak: White
Hardness: 7
Crystal System: Hexagonal
Specific Gravity: 2.6—2.7
Luster: Vitreous. Transparent, colorless Quartz crystals from a few distinct localities
may be adamantine.
Cleavage: Indiscernible. Seldom exhibits parting.
In group: Silicates; Tectosilicates; Silica Group
Striking Features: Hardness, crystal forms, striations on crystal faces, and frequent
appearance of conchoidal fractures on crystal faces.
Rock Type: Igneous, Sedimentary, Metamorphic
 USES OF QUARTZ

• Sand, which is composed of tiny Quartz pebbles, is

the primary ingredient for the manufacture of glass.
• Transparent Rock Crystal has many electronic uses;
it is used as oscillators in radios, watches, and
pressure gauges, and in the study of optics.
• Quartz is also used as an abrasive for sandblasting,
grinding glass, and cutting soft stones.
• It is also essential in the computer industry, as the
important silicon semiconductors are made from
Quartz.
• Quartz is essential to the gem trade. Many varieties
are faceted as gems. Amethyst and Citrine are the
most well-known gem varieties. Rose Quartz, Smoky
Quartz, Rock Crystal, and Aveturine are also cut or
polished into gems. Small colorless Quartz crystals
are worn by some as pendants for goodluck.
Feldspar is the name of a large organization of rockforming
silicate minerals that make up over 50% of Earth’s crust. They
are discovered in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary
rocks in all components of the sector. Feldspar minerals have
very comparable structures, chemical compositions, and bodily
properties. Common feldspars consist orthoclase (KAISi3O8),
albite (NaAISi3O8), and anorthite (CaAI2Si2O8).

COMPOSITION OF FELDSPAR GROUP OF MINERALS

3 ENDMEMBERS:
1. Potassium Feldspar (K-spar) endmember KAISi3O8
2. Albite endmember NaAlSi3O8
3. Anorthite endmember CaAl2SiO8

Solid answers between K-felspar and albite are referred to as

“alkali feldspar”. Solid solutions among albite and anorthite are
called “plagioclase”, or greater nicely “plagioclase feldspar”.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FELDSPAR

Chemical Classification: Silicate

Color: Usually white, pink, gray or brown. Also, colorless, yellow, orange, red,
black, blue, green.
Streak: White
Luster: Vitreous. Pearly on some cleavage faces.
Diaphaneity: Usually translucent to opaque. Rarely transparent
Cleavage: Cleavage planes usually intersect at or close to a 90 degrees angle.
Mohs Hardness: 6 to 6.5
Specific Gravity: 2.5 to 2.8
Diagnostic Properties: Perfect cleavage, with cleavage faces usually
intersecting at or close 90 degrees. Consistent hardness, specific gravity and
pearly luster on cleavage.
Chemical Composition: A generalized chemical composition of X(Al,Si)4O8 ,
where X is usually potassium, sodium, or calcium, but rarely can be barium,
rubidium, or strontium.
Crystal System: Triclinic, monoclinic
BARIUM FELDSPARS
• Celsian BaAl2Si2O8
• Hyalophane BaAl2Si2O8

PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR
• Albine
• Oligoclase
• Andesine
• Labradorite
• Bytownite
• Anorthite
 PRODUCTION AND USES OF FELDSPAR

• Feldspar is a common uncooked fabric utilized in

glassmaking, ceramics, and to a point as a filler and
extender in paint, plastics, and rubber.
• In glassmaking, alumina from feldspar improves product
hardness, sturdiness, and resistance to chemical corrosion.
• In ceramics, the alkalis in feldspar (calcium oxide,
potassium oxide, and sodium oxide) act as a flux, decreasing
the melting temperature of a combination. Fluxes melt at an
early stage in the firing method, forming a glassy matrix that
bonds the opposite additives of the gadget collectively.
Augite is isomorphous with the minerals Diopside
and Hedenbergite. It is an intermediary member
between these minerals, forming a series, but
contains additional sodium and aluminum within its
chemical structure.

Augite is an important rock-forming mineral, and

large crystals are fairly common. It is the most
widespread member of the pyroxene group, and it
frequently alters to many other minerals, including
Hornblende, Chlorite, and Epidote. When altered to
Actinolite, it
Is often called Uralite.

The name Augite is derived from the Greek word

Augites, “brightness”, in reference to the bright
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AUGITE

Chemical Formula: (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Al,Si)2O6

Composition: Silicate of calcium, sodium, magnesium, iron, and aluminum.
Occasssionally with zinc, manganese, and titanium impurities.
Color: Green, grayish-green, greenish brown, dark brown, black
Streak: Light green to colorless
Hardness: 5—6
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Specific Gravity: 3.2—3.6
Luster: Vitreous, full
Cleavage: 1,2 – prismatic at cleavage angles of 87° and 93° (Characteristics of
minerals in the pyroxene group). May also exhibit parting in one direction.
In group: Silicates; Inosilicates; Pyroxene Group
Striking Features: Color, crystal habits, cleavage, and environment
Rock Type: Igneous, Metamorphic
USES OF AUGITE

Augite does not have any physical, optical, or chemical properties that make it
especially useful. It is therefore one of the few minerals that has no commercial use.
The calcium content of augite has been found to be of limited use in studies of the
temperature history of igneous rocks.
 Hornblende is a group of dark, opaque amphibole minerals,
primarily including Ferrohornblende and Magnesio-hornblende, but
often used to refer to all calcium aluminum amphiboles. These
minerals are very similar in appearance and can be difficult to
distinguish without advanced analysis.

Hornblende is a major component of the Earth’s crust and is

commonly found in various mineral environments, often making up
significant portions of the rocks in which it forms. It also constitutes a
specific rock type called Horneblendite, which is primarily composed
of Hornblende.

The name “Hornblende” comes from the German words for “horn”
(referring to its color) and “blenden” (meaning “deceiver”),
highlighting its tendency to be mistaken for ore metals due to its
dark color and luster, which are typically influenced by iron in its
structure.

Hornblende is a rock-forming mineral that is an important constituent

in acidic and intermediate igneous rocks such as granite, diorite,
Varieti
es
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HORNBLENDE

Chemical Classification: Silicate

Color: Usually black, dark-green, dark-brown
Streak: White, colorless – (brittle, often leaves cleavage debris behind
instead of a streak)
Luster: Vitreous
Diaphaneity: Translucent to nearly opaque
Cleavage: Two directions intersecting at 124 and 56 degrees
Mohs Hardness: 5 to 6
Specific Gravity: 2.9 to 3.5 (varies depending upon composition
Diagnostic Properties: Cleavage, color, elongate habit
Chemical Composition: (Ca,Na)2–3(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Al,Si)8O22(OH,F)2
Crystal System: Very little industrial use
USES OF HORNBLENDE

The mineral hornblende has very few uses. Its primary use might be as
a mineral specimen. However, hornblende is the most abundant
mineral in a rock known as amphibolite which has a large number of
uses. It is crushed and used for highway construction and as railroad
ballast. It is cut for use as dimension stone. The highest quality pieces
are cut, polished, and sold under the name “black granite” for use as
Building facing, floor tiles, countertops, and other architectural uses.

Hornblende has been used to estimate the depth of crystallization of

plutonic rocks. Those with low aluminum content are associated with
shallow depths of crystallization, while those with higher aluminum
content are associated with greater depths of crystallization.
Biotite is a very common form of mica. It is named in honor
Jean Baptiste Biot (1774 – 1862), a French physicist,
mathematician, and astronomer who researched the mica
minerals for their optical properties. Because of Biotite’s
abundance, its presence is usually lacking in collections
except for it being an accessory mineral to other minerals.
Biotite can come in enormous crystal sheets that can weigh
several hundred pounds. Thin sheets can be peeled off as
layers, and the thinner a layer is peeled the greater its
transparency becomes.

In 1998, the IMA removed the status of Biotite as an

individual mineral species, and instead declared it as a
group name for the following individual members:
Phlogopite, Annite, Siderophyllite, and Eastonite. However,
mineral collectors still refer to Biotite by its traditional name
and rarely make a distinction among its members except for
Phlogopite. Biotite is very hard to clean because if washed it
will absorb water internally and start to break apart. The
best way to wash Biotite and other Micas is with a dry
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF BIOTITE

Chemical Formula: K(Mg,Fe2+3)(Al,Fe3+)Si3O10(OH,F)2

Composition: Basic fluoro potassium, magnesium, iron aluminum silicate
Color: Black, dark brown, dark green, reddish black. Individual group
member minerals such as Phlogopite and Eastonite can be in lighter colors.
Streak: White
Hardness: 2.5-3
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Specific Gravity: 2.8-3.4
Luster: Pearly
Cleavage: 1, 1
In Group: Silicates; Phyllosilicates; Mica Group
Striking Features: Flaky habit, crystals, sectility, and mode of occurrence
USES OF BIOTITE
Biotite is used to determine the age of rock through the process of
argon-argon dating or potassium-argon dating. Biotite can be used to
determine the minimum age of rock and profile its temperature
history. Sheet mica is important in the electronics industry as an
electrical and thermal insulator.
Muscovite is the most common mineral of the mica
family. It is an important rock-forming mineral present
in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Like
other micas it readily cleaves into thin transparent
sheets. Muscovite sheets have a pearly to vitreous
luster on their surface. If they are held up to the light,
They are transparent and nearly colorless, but most
have a slight brown, yellow, green, rose-color tint.

The ability of muscovite to split into thin transparent

sheets – sometimes up to several feet across – gave it
an early use as window panes. In the 1700s, it was
mined for this use from pegmatites in the area around
Moscow, Russia. These panes were called “muscovy
Glass” and that term is thought to have inspired the
mineral name “muscovite”.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MUSCOVITE

Chemical Formula: KAl3Si3O10(OH)2

Composition: Basic potassium aluminum silicate, sometimes with some
chromium or manganese replacing the aluminum
Color: Colorless, white, beige, yellow, brown, gray, green, pink, purple, red,
black; occasionally multicolored
Streak: Colorless
Hardness: 2-2.5
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Specific Gravity: 2.7-3.0
Luster: Pearly
Cleavage: 1, 1
In Group: Silicates; Phyllosilicates; Mica Group
Rock Type: Igneous, Metamorphic
USES OF GROUND MICA
Muscovite is a very poor conductor of heat and electricity, and is thus used as an
insulator for various electrical products and semiconductors. It is also used in the
production of automotive tires and cosmetics. Large Muscovite sheets were also
once used for oven windows (“isinglass”) due to their ability to withstand high
temperatures and keep the heat inside.
Calcite is a rock-forming mineral with a chemical
formula of CaCO3. It is extremely common and found
throughout the world in sedimentary, metamorphic,
and igneous rocks. Some geologists consider it to be a
“ubiquitous mineral” – one that is found everywhere.

Calcite is the principal constituent of limestone and

marble. These rocks are extremely common and make
up a significant portion of Earth’s crust. They serve as
one of the largest carbon repositories on our planet.

The properties of calcite make it one of the most

widely used mineral. It is used as a construction
material, abrasive, agricultural soil treatment,
construction aggregate, pigment, pharmaceutical and
more. It has more uses than almost any other mineral.
CALCITE AS LIMESTONE AND MARBLE Marble is a metamorphic rock that forms
when limestone is subjected to heat and
Limestone is a sedimentary rock that is composed pressure. A close examination of a broken
primarily of calcite. It forms from both the chemical
piece of marble will usually reveal obvious
precipitation of calcium carbonate and the
cleavage faces of calcite. The size of the
transformation of shell, coral, fecal and algal debris
into calcite during diagenesis. Limestone also forms as
calcite crystals is determined by the level of
a deposit in caves from the precipitation of calcium metamorphism. Marble that has been
carbonate. subjected to higher levels of metamorphism
will generally have larger calcite crystals.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CALCITE

Chemical Formula: CaCO3

Composition: Calcium cacrbonate, sometimes with impurities of iron,
magnesium, or manganese, and occasionally zinc and cobalt.
Color: Colorless, white, yellow, brown, orange, pink, red, purple, blue,
green, gray, black, may also be multicolored or banded.
Streak: White
Hardness: 3
Crystal System: Hexagonal
Specific Gravity: 2.7
Luster: Vitreous
Cleavage: 1, 3 – rhombohedal
In Group: Carbonates; Calcite Group
Rock Type: Igneous, Sedimentary, Metamorphic
USES OF CALCITE
The construction industry is the primary
consumer of calcite in the form of limestone and
marble. These rocks have been used as
dimension stones and in mortar for thousands of
years. Limestone blocks were the primary
construction material used in many of the
pyramids of Egypt and Latin America. Today,
rough and polished limestone and marble are
still an important material used in prestige
architecture.

Modern construction uses calcite in the form of

limestone and marble to produce cement and
concrete. These materials are easily mixed,
transported, and in placed in the form of a slurry
that will harden into a durable construction
material. Concrete is used to make buildings,
highways, bridges, walls, and many other
structures.
Garnet is the name used for a large group of rock-
forming minerals. It is not a single mineral, but a group
contains related, isomorphous minerals that form a
series with each other. The garnet members form
intermediary minerals between each member, and may
even intergrow within a single crystal. The garnets vary
only slightly in physical properties, and some of the
members so similar that they are indistinguishable from
one another without x-ray analysis.

The common Garnets can be divided into two

subgroups:
Group 1: Garnets containing aluminum (Al) as their
second element. These include Pyrope, Almandine, and
Spessartine. (“Pyralspite”)
Group 2: Garnets containing calcium (Ca) as their first
element. These include Uvarovite, Grossular, and
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GARNET

Chemical Classification: Silicate

Color: Typically red, but can be orange, green, yellow, purple, black,
or brown. Blue garnets are extremely rare.
Streak: Colorless
Luster: Vitreous
Diaphaneity: Transparent to translucent
Cleavage: None
Mohs Hardness: 6.5 to 7.5
Specific Gravity: 3.5 to 4.3
Chemical Composition: General Formula: X3Y2(SiO4)3
Crystal System: Isometric
USES OF GARNET
Garnet has been used as
gemstone for thousands of
years. In the past 150, it has
seen many additional uses of
garnet in the United States.
Garnet is also used as an
indicator mineral during mineral
exploration and geologic
assessments.
HOW DOES GARNET FORM?

• GARNET IN METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Most garnet forms at convergent plate boundaries where shale is being acted upon by regional
metamorphism. The heat and pressure of metamorphism breaks chemical bonds and causes minerals
to recrystallize into structures that are stable under the new temperature-pressure environment. The
aluminum garnet, almandine, generally forms in this environment.

• GARNET IN IGNEOUS ROCKS

Garnet often occurs as an accessory mineral in igneous rocks such as granite. May people are familiar
with almandine garnet because it is sometimes seen as dark red crystals in the igneous rock used as
granite countertops. Spessartine is an orange garnet found as crystals in granite pegmatites. Pyrope is
a red garnet that is brought to Earth’s surface in pieces of peridotite that were torn from the mantle
during deep-source volcanic eruptions. Garnet is also found in basaltic lava flows.

• GARNET IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS AND SEDIMENTS

Garnet are relatively durable minerals. They are often found concentrated in the soils and sediments
that form when garnet-bearing rocks are weathered and eroded. These alluvial garnets are often the
target of mining operations because they are easy to mine and remove from the sediment/soil by
mechanical processing.
PROPERTIES, PROCESS OF FORMATION OF ALL
MINERALS
1. WHAT IS A MINERAL?

 Minerals- are naturally occurring, inorganic substances with a specific

chemical composition and a unique crystalline structure.
2. WHAT ARE THE FACTORS AFFECTING MINERAL FORMATION?

FACTORS AFFECTING MINERAL FORMATION ARE:

1. Temperature – increases solubility

2. Pressure – affects solubility promoting recrystallization
3. Water Presence – acts as solvent, facilitates movement of ions promoting mineral
formation
4. pH level – The acidity or alkalinity of the solution can significantly impact which minerals
can form, as certain minerals are more stable at specific pH levels
5. Oxygen Availability – Oxygen levels can influence the oxidation state of elements,
affecting the types of minerals that can form
6. Time – Mineral formation often requires extended periods of time for ions to
properly align and crystallize, leading to the development of larger, well- formed crystals
Question:

Can an Element be a Mineral?

3. WHAT ARE THE 8 PROPERTIES OF MINERALS ?

Eight (8) Properties of Minerals:

1. Color – one way of identifying a mineral but not reliable.

Example:
 Hematite – is deep dull red, but in others it is black and shiny
metallic Yellow Quartz, Rose Quartz, Purple Quartz, Milky Quartz

2. Streak – the colour of a mineral in its powdered form

3. Lustre – the way its surface reflects light

Types of mineral luster :
 Metallic
 Non-metallic (glassy, dull, silky, pearly and resinous)
4. Hardness – a measure of how resistant a mineral is to scratching

5. Crystal Habit – the shape of a single crystal or group of crystals

Example:
6. Cleavage and Fracture
 Cleavage – refers to a mineral's tendency to break along smooth,
flat planes due to its crystal structure, clean break
 Fracture – is a rough, random break with no defined planes
7. Density – measure of how much matter is packed into the space the
mineral occupies, mass of mineral per unit volume (g/cm^3)
8. Others
a. Magnetism – minerals that are attracted to magnets
Example: Magnetite
b. Solubility – the maximum amount of a mineral that can dissolve
in a given volume of solution
Example: Calcite is soluble in dilute acid and gives off
bubbles of Carbon dioxide
4. Name the processes of Mineral formation

a. Magmatic Crystallization – Minerals form through the cooling

solidification of Magma.
b. Metamorphic Recrystallization – Minerals can form through the
recrystallization of existing minerals under high pressure and
temperature conditions
c. Hydrothermal Activity – Minerals can form through the interaction of
hot water and rocks, melting,
d. Weathering, Erosion and Deposition
 Weathering – is the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals
on the Earth's surface
 Erosion – is the transportation or the movement of the weathered
material
 Deposition – is the dropping off the weathered material
e. Organic Formation – Minerals can form through the activity of living
organism
Example:
Calcite – from shells
Apatite – from bones
WHAT IS COAL AND ITS ORIGIN?

Coal – contains the energy stored by plants that lived hundreds of

millions of years ago in swampy forests.
Stages of Coal Formation:

Peat - Peat forms when plant material accumulates underwater, where a

lack of oxygen prevents full decomposition, leading to the buildup of organic matter.

Ignite - Lignite, the second stage of coal formation, forms under pressure from
sediments. Dark brown and plant-rich, it is used only when better fuel unavailable.
Fragile, it crumbles easily and isn’t suited for transport

Bituminous - Bituminous coal, the third stage, forms under added pressure, losing
plant traces. Known as “soft coal,” it is abundant in Cape Breton and widely used for
industrial heat energy.
Anthracite - Anthracite, the final stage of coal formation, is hard, lustrous, and forms under high
pressure and temperature. It burns with a short flame and little smoke.
Geological Period of Coal Formation in India:

The Gondwana Coalfields

 Gondwana coal makes up to 98% of the total coal reserves in India and
99% of the coal production in India.
 Gondwana coal is free from moisture and contains phosphorus and
sulphur
 The carbon content in Gondwana coal is less compared to the
Carboniferous coal that is 350 million years old which is almost absent
in India because of its much younger age.
Tertiary Coal Fields

 Carbon content is very low but is rich in moisture and sulfur.

 Tertiary coalfields are mainly confined to extra-peninsular regions
 Important areas include Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arunachal
Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Himalayan foothills of Darjeeling in West
Bengal, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Kerala.
Occurrence of Coal in India:
India is the fifth-largest coal producer in the world, with vast reserves spread
across different states. Coal occurs mainly in sedimentary rock basins.

Major Coalfields in India:

1. Jharkhand:
 Jharia Coalfield: Known for high-grade coking coal used in the
steel industry.
  Bokaro: Major center for coal-based industries.

2. Chhattisgarh:
 Korba Coalfield: Supplies fuel for power plants.
3. Odisha:
 Talcher and Ib Valley: Rich in thermal coal used for electricity
generation.

4. West Bengal:
 Raniganj Coalfield: The birthplace of coal mining in India; rich in
non-coking coal.
5. Madhya Pradesh:
 Singrauli: Known as the energy capital of India due to large thermal power
plants.

6. Maharashtra:
 Wardha Valley: Contains bituminous coal, used for power
generation.
Types of Coal in India:

1. Anthracite: Hardest, highest carbon content, rare in India.

2. Bituminous: Most abundant, used for electricity and steel.

Types of Coal in India:

3. Lignite: Soft coal with high moisture, found in Tamil

Nadu and Rajasthan

4. Peat: Lowest grade, found in swampy regions.

What is petroleum and its origin:

Petroleum is a liquid which occurs naturally in rock formations. This consists of a

complex mixture of different molecular weights of hydrocarbons, plus other organic
compounds.
Formation Process of Petroleum:
 Petroleum refineries convert (refine) crude oil into petroleum products.

1. Distilling - Crude oil is heated, turning it into vapor. As the vapor rises and cools
in a distillation unit, it condenses back into liquid. The liquid is then separated
into different layers based on weight using trays.
- Lighter liquids (gasoline) require minimal processing.
- Medium-weight liquids (diesel) need moderate processing.
- Heavier liquids (fuel oil, asphalt) require more extensive processing.

2. Cracking – is a process that breaks down large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller ones.
There are two main types:
- Thermal cracking - which uses high temperatures to break down molecules.
- Catalytic cracking - which uses a catalyst to speed up the reaction.
3. Reforming - is a refining process that converts low-value hydrocarbons, such as naphtha, into high-
value aromatics and hydrogen.

 Naphtha - is a flammable, colorless hydrocarbon mixture derived from petroleum or coal tar, used as
feedstock, solvent, and fuel.

This process involves:

1. Catalytic reaction: Using a catalyst, such as platinum, to facilitate the reaction.

2. High temperature and pressure: Operating at high temperatures (around 500°C) and
pressures (around 30 atm).
3. Blending - is the process of mixing different petroleum products, such as fuels,
lubricants, and additives, to create a final product with specific properties and
characteristics.
4. Treating - is a refining process that removes impurities, such as sulfur, nitrogen, and
other contaminants, from petroleum products to improve their quality and stability.
Occurrence of Petroleum in India: India’s petroleum resources are found both onshore (land-
based) and offshore (under the seabed).

•Major Petroleum-Producing Regions:

1. Assam (Northeast India):
 Digboi: Known as the “Oil City of Assam,” where Asia’s first oil well was drilled
in 1867.
 Naharkatiya & Moran: Major oil-producing areas with rich reserves.
2. Gujarat (Western India):
 Ankleshwar & Cambay Basin: Key onshore oil fields, with both oil and natural gas
reserves.
3. Mumbai High (Maharashtra):
 Offshore Oil Field: Located in the Arabian Sea, discovered in 1974. It’s the largest
oil-producing field in India.
4. Rajasthan:
▪ Barmer Basin (Mangala Oil Field): Discovered in 2004, significant contributor to
India’s oil production.
5. Krishna-Godavari Basin (Andhra Pradesh):
▪ Major offshore reserves located in the Bay of Bengal, rich in both oil and natural
gas.