4.

Land Vertebrates – Tetrapods

The term tetrapod applies to all vertebrates other than fishes, and
most tetrapods exhibit adaptations for life on land.
4.1. Origin of tetrapods and their fish ancestors

The movement from water to land required more than the change from
fins to feet.

The terrestrial environment is different than the aquatic environment.

• A higher oxygen content means oxygen can diffuse more rapidly.

• Air is less dense – less buoyant.

Stronger skeletal structure, sturdier limbs.

• Temperature fluctuates more.

• Terrestrial environment offers a whole new array of habitats.

There are a suite of challenges associated with terrestrial living that the
first tetrapods had to overcome:

1. water supports a fish’s body but air does not, so stronger skeletal
structures were needed to support the body and limbs to allow
movement.
2. gills collapse out of water so an alternative breathing system (i.e.
lungs) was needed.
3. there was a constant threat of water loss from the skin or through
eggs, which limited the first tetrapods to a close connection with
water until hard-shelled amniotic eggs evolved.
4. the need for ears for detecting airborne sounds.
Tetrapod characteristcis

Unique derived features of the tetrapods

 Paired limbs: forelimbs with digits, carpals, radius+ulna, humerus;

hindlimbs digits, tarsals, tibia+fibula, femur.

 Mobile neck: pectoral girdle separated from the skull. In ancestors

the pectoral girdle attached directly to the skull.

 Hyomandibular bone previously used to support the jaw now used

in hearing. Called the stapes it conducts sound in the ear.

 First cervical vertebra (the atlas) specialized to allow the skull to

nod.
 4.2. Class Amphibia

Position in the Animal Kingdom

• Amphibians are ectothermic, primitively quadrupedal vertebrates,

with glandular skin and dependence on water for their reproduction.

• The first vertebrates to evolve adaptations to breathe, support

themselves, move, and detect airborne sounds and odors on land,
while minimizing water loss.
Biological Contributions of amphibians

• Strong skeletal framework to support body weight on land, and the

tetrapod leg with associated shoulder/hip girdle for walking on land.

• A respiratory system with lungs and paired internal nostrils

(choanae), which enable breathing through the nose.

• Double circulation with functionally separated pulmonary and

systemic circuits and a three chambered heart.

• Pulmonary arteries and veins supply the lungs and return

oxygenated blood to the heart.
• For vision in air, the cornea rather than the lens became the principal
refractive surface for bending light; eyelids and lachrymal glands
evolved to protect and wash the eye.

• A well-developed olfactory epithelium lining the nasal cavity

evolved to detect airborne odor
• Most amphibians have moist skin that complements the lungs in gas
exchange.

• Amphibians require moist environments and are ectothermic with a

low metabolic rate.

The amphibians are divided into three orders.

 Order Gymnophiona : previously Apoda “legless ones”, caecilians.

 Order Anura/ Salientia : “tailless ones” frogs, toads.
 Order Urodela/caudata “tailed ones”: salamanders
Order Gymnophiona: caecilians
Order Urodela: Salamander

Order Anura: frogs and toads

Characteristics of Modern Amphibians

• Skeleton mostly bony, with varying numbers of vertebrae; ribs

present in some, absent or fused to vertebrae in others; notochord
does not persist; exoskeleton absent
• Body forms vary greatly from an elongated trunk with distinct
head, neck, and tail to a compact, depressed body with fused head
and trunk and no intervening neck
• Limbs usually four (tetrapod), although some are legless; forelimbs
of some much smaller than hindlimbs, in others all limbs small and
inadequate; webbed feet often present; no true nails or claws;
forelimb usually with four digits but sometimes five and sometimes
fewer
• Skin smooth and moist with many glands, some of which may be
poison glands; pigments cells (chromatophores) common, of
considerable variety; no scales, except concealed dermal ones in some
• Mouth usually large with small teeth in upper or both jaws;
• Respiration by lungs (absent in some salamanders), skin, and gills in
some, either separately or in combination; external gills in larval
forms and may persist throughout life in some
• Circulation with three-chambered heart, two atria and one ventricle,
and a double circulation through the heart; skin abundantly supplied
with blood vessels
• Excretory system of paired mesonephric kidneys; urea main
nitrogenous waste
• Separate sexes; fertilization mostly internal in salamanders and
caecilians, mostly external in frogs and toads; predominantly
oviparous, some ovoviviparous or viviparous; metamorphosis usually
present;
Amphibian skin

• Amphibians lack scales and are characterized by a moist permeable

skin.
• This limits the environments in which they typically can live as they
are constrained by the threat of water loss.
• Typically they inhabit wet or damp habitats where the humidity is
high (e.g., ponds. forest floors in leaf litter).
• Many anurans and salamanders absorb moisture from the soil or other
substrates through their skin.
Mucous gland and poison glands

• Amphibian skin often contains mucous glands and granular

(poison) glands.

• Mucous glands help keep the skin moist and able to function in gas
exchange when the animal is out of water.

• The mucus may also have anti-predator benefits as it makes the

animal slippery and difficult to grip.

• Granular glands in many amphibians produce noxious and sometimes

toxic secretions.

• These glands are often grouped together and give the skin a textured
appearance.
Gas exchange

• The moist skin is used extensively for gas exchange

• To enhance gas exchange the skin in many species is highly folded
and heavily vascularized.

• Gas exchange also takes place via lungs and gills (in larvae).
Gills

• Larval amphibians breathe using external gills.

• When anuran tadpoles metamorphose into adults the gills are

reabsorbed.
Feeding

• All adult amphibians are carnivorous and amphibians eat anything

they can catch and swallow.

• Because amphibians generally swallow their prey whole, head size

limits prey size.

• Most amphibians have small, identical teeth (homodont dentition),

which are found on both the palate and jaw.

• The function of the teeth is to grasp and hold prey not to chew it.

Tongue protrusion

• Most amphibians possess a sticky tongue and many can rapidly evert
it to catch prey.
Hydromantes salamander shooting
its tongue to catch a housefly
http://autodax.net/tngphoto.jpg
4.2.3. The life of amphibians (morphology, physiology and
geographical distribution
Caecilians: Order Gymnophiona (Apoda)

Caecilians are wormlike burrowers that feed on worms and other

invertebrates in the soil.
Skin covers the eyes; thus, caecilians are probably nearly blind.

Caecilians appear segmented because of folds in the skin that overlie

separations between muscle bundles.

Many caecilians have dermal scales in pockets of the annuli,

Reproduction: In caecilians fertilization is internal.

Salamanders: Order Caudata
(Urodela)

Most salamanders have limbs with

forelimbs and hindlimbs of
approximately equal size.

In some aquatic and burrowing forms,

limbs are rudimentary and some may be
absent.

Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma

maculatum)
Salamanders are carnivorous both as larvae and adults, preying on
worms, small arthropods, and small molluscs.
Paedomorphosis

Paedomorphosis is widespread among salamanders and in a number of

families only paedomphic forms occur.
These animals retain larval features as adults larval characteristics.
These can include a lack of eyelids, a lateral line system, larval tooth
and bone patterns and, in some instances, external gills.

Some species only metamorphose under certain conditions.

Metamorphose when the pond evaporates.

Frogs and Toads: Order Anura (Salientia)
The frogs and toads are by far the largest group of amphibians
Frogs and toads occupy a great variety of habitats.
Their aquatic mode of reproduction and water-permeable skin prevent
them from wandering too far from sources of water,
The name of the order, Anura, refers to an obvious group characteristic,
the absence of tails in adults.
Although all pass through a tailed
larval stage during development, only
the genus Ascaphus contains a tail-like
structure in the adult.
Frogs and toads are specialized for
jumping, as suggested by the
alternative order name, Salientia,
which means leaping.
They are specialized for jumping and
as adults lack a tail. Tree frog

Golden frog
Group characteristic

(i) Head and trunk fused with only one neck vertebrae

(ii) Exhibit aquatic larval stage and show full metamorphosis

(iii) Adults breath by lungs assisted by moist skin

(iv) Eyes are movable and possess lachrymal glands

(v) have well developed sternum (breast bone) and limb girdles

(vi) are the first truly vocal vertebrates.

Specializations for jumping

•The hind legs are very enlarged and elongated.

•The vertebral column is short and the vertebrae are braced by articular
processes that limit lateral bending.

•The pelvis is solidly attached to the vertebral column and it has been
greatly modified and strengthened.

•A flexible pectoral girdle and strong forelimbs provide cushioning on

landing.
http://www.k-state.edu/organismic/images/frog_skeleton.jpg
•Most anurans given the common name frog are long legged and move
by jumping.

•Shorter-legged terrestrial anurans are usually called toads and they

move by making short hops.
 Leaping Frog
http://www.funfacts.com.au/
images/leaping-frog1.JPG

Woodhouse Toad
http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/staff/wilks/interests/
toads/images/Woodhouse%
27s-Toad-01.jpg
Arboreal frogs

There are many species of frogs specialized for climbing in trees and
shrubs.

These are usually slim and long legged with large heads and eyes.

Some of the most specialized arboreal species are called tree frogs and
possess specially modified toe pads that allow them to adhere to
surfaces.
Circulation

Tetrapods have separated pulmonary and systemic circulation.

This is made more efficient by partitioning the heart. This partitioning is
not complete in amphibians.
Frog hearts have two atria, but a single ventricle. Blood still remains
mostly separated.
Senses

Lateral line system present in larval forms only.

Ears are used for detecting airborne sounds.

Vision is important in most amphibians.

Frogs have color vision provided by rods and cones on the retina.

Frogs also have tactile & chemical receptors in their skin, taste
buds on the tongue and palate, and a well-developed olfactory
epithelium in the nasal cavity.