Animal nutrition

Introduction

• Why do animal / human eat?

• Nutrition – is a process by which animals obtain and digest food
• In animals nutrition provides energy for the body processes and
materials for repair and growth
Nutrients in food
• Carbohydrates – Main source of energy.
• Proteins – Needed for growth, repair, and enzymes.
• Lipids (fats and oils) – Energy storage and insulation.
• Vitamins – Regulate body processes (e.g., Vitamin C for immunity).
• Minerals – Build bones, teeth, and help in metabolic processes (e.g.,
Calcium, Iron).

• Water – Medium for chemical reactions, regulates body temperature.

• Fibre – Aids in digestion (not a nutrient but essential for health).
Important terminology
• herbivore animal that eats only plants or parts of plants

• carnivore animal that eats only other animals or the remains

of other animal

• omnivore animal that eats plants, animals or dead animal

flesh
Type of teeth in animals including
humans
• incisors
•  chisel-shaped
•  used for biting or cutting of food
• canines
•  pointed
•  used for catching, holding, tearing and/or killing prey
• premolars  flat and uneven
•  used for grinding and crushing food
• molars
•  flat and uneven
•  used for grinding and crushing food
• carnassial teeth
•  specialised molars and pre-molars with jagged, triangular
• edges
•  used for cutting meat
Structure of different teeth found in
human
Comparison of teeth for different
types of nutrition
• herbivores
•  use incisors to cut the plant material
•  usually lack canines
•  use molars and premolars to grind food

• Carnivores
•  use incisors to slice or shred meat
•  large, well-developed canines used for catching, holding
• and tearing meat
•  molars and premolars are modified to form carnassial
• teeth
• omnivores
•  have teeth that are modified for eating both plant material
• and meat similar to those in humans
The digestive system
• The digestive system is responsible for breaking down complex
molecules into their simplest forms to be absorbed into the body
to sustain life.

• The human digestive system is made up of an alimentary canal

(tube from mouth to anus) and accessory organs (e.g. liver,
pancreas) that aid in the digestive process
Main organs and functions
• Mouth – Mechanical digestion (teeth), chemical digestion (saliva).

• Oesophagus – Moves food to the stomach via peristalsis.

• Stomach – Secretes acid and enzymes; digests proteins.

• Small Intestine – Most digestion and absorption happen here.
• Large Intestine – Absorbs water and forms faeces.
• Rectum and Anus – Stores and expels faeces.
Accessory organ
• Liver – Produces bile to break down fats.

• Gall bladder – Stores bile.

• Pancreas – Produces digestive enzymes.

Structure showing human digestive
system
Structure of human digestive
system and their function

• Mouth cavity
• The mouth cavity consists of many parts:
•  Teeth which break down and grind food
•  Tongue which mixes food and is used for swallowing of food
•  Hard and soft palate which forms the roof of the mouth
•  Salivary glands release saliva which contains enzymes
(called
• carbohydrases) to chemically break down carbohydrates
• pharynx &
• oesophagus
•  After food is swallowed (now called the bolus), it moves into the
• pharynx which is the tube used to take in food and air
•  The food moves down to the larynx where the epiglottis (a
• cartilage flap) stops food from going into the trachea
•  Food goes down the oesophagus
•  The oesophagus pushes food down to the stomach by
peristalsis
• stomach
•  The stomach is a muscular sac with thick walls
•  It churns the food and mixes it with gastric juice (hydrochloric
acid- HCl) and enzymes (this mixture is called chyme)
•  The stomach has two sphincters (a ring of muscles to
close a
• tube) to keep both openings to the stomach closed while food is
• being digested.
• liver & gall bladder
•  Liver cells produce bile which is stored in the gall bladder until
• being released into the duodenum of the small intestine
•  Bile has a number of functions in digestion:
• o Bile emulsifies large fat globules into small fat droplets which
• aids digestion
• o It neutralises the acidic fluid (chyme) which comes from the
• stomach
• o It promotes peristalsis in the small intestine
• o It acts as an antiseptic which prevents decay of food
• particles in the small intestine.
• pancreas
•  Secretes pancreatic juices which digest carbohydrates,
proteins
• and lipids in the small intestine (exocrine gland).
•  Also neutralises chyme from the stomach
•  Controls blood glucose levels in the body (endocrine gland)
Small intestine
• It is a long muscular tube measuring 2.5m to 4.5 m,

• Small intestine is made up of

• duodenum
• , jejunum
• ileum
Duodenum
• This is the first part of the small intestine.

• It receives partially digested food (chyme) from the stomach and

mixes it with digestive juices from the pancreas and bile from the
liver.
• The duodenum begins the process of chemical digestion, especially
of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Jejunum
• This middle section is mainly responsible for the absorption of
nutrients like amino acids, simple sugars, vitamins, and minerals into
the bloodstream.
• It has a rich supply of blood vessels to aid in nutrient absorption.
Ileum
• It is the longest part of the small intestine
• It runs from the jejunum to a sac-like caecum which is the first part of
the large intestine
• This last section is used to further absorb the nutrients
• It also play a role in moving undigested foods to the large intestine
• colon
•  The colon (also called the large intestine) is divided into three
• regions: ascending colon( caecum), transverse colon(colon) and
descending colon(rectum
• The caecum is the sac- like portion into which the small intestine
opens.
• Caecum is attached to the appendix
•  Most water and mineral salts are absorbed in the colon
•  The descending colon leads to the rectum followed by the anus
where undigested food is egested
• There are 5 steps for human digestion which are
• Ingestion, digestion absorption, assimilation and egestion
Ingestion

• Definition: The process of taking food into the mouth.

• Where it happens: In the mouth.

• Details:
• It involves placing food into the oral cavity (mouth).
• Teeth mechanically break down food (chewing).
• Saliva (from salivary glands) starts chemical digestion by breaking down starch into
simpler sugars using the enzyme amylase.
• The tongue helps in mixing food and pushing it to the back of the mouth for
swallowing.
• It involves placing food into the oral cavity (mouth).

• Teeth mechanically break down food (chewing).

• Saliva (from salivary glands) starts chemical digestion by breaking

down starch into simpler sugars using the enzyme amylase.

• The tongue helps in mixing food and pushing it to the back of the
mouth for swallowing.
Digestion
• Definition: The breakdown of large, complex food molecules into
smaller, soluble ones.
• Types:
• Mechanical digestion – Physical breakdown (chewing, churning).
• Chemical digestion – Enzymes break down food into simpler
molecules.
• Where it happens:
• Starts in the mouth, continues in the stomach, and completes in the
small intestine.
Mechanical digestion
• Breaking down of food materials by a physical process involving the
action of muscles
• This helps to break down the food into smaller pieces so that it
exposes an increased surface area for the action of digestive enzymes
Chemical digestion
• Chemical breakdown of food materials by enzymes
• Chemical digestion occurs by the process of hydrolysis whereby
large ,complex insoluble nutrients molecules are broken down into
smaller, simpler, soluble molecules by the chemical addition of water.
• The enzymes responsible for hydrolysis during digestion are grouped
into 3 categories based on the organic compounds being hydrolysed
• Proteases: hydrolyse proteins into amino acid
• Lipases : hydrolyse lipids into fatty acids and glycerol
• Carbohydrates: hydrolyse carbohydrates into simple sugars such as
glucose
Key enzyme and function

• Amylase – starch to sugars (mouth, small intestine).

• Protease – proteins to amino acids (stomach, small intestine).

• Lipase – fats to fatty acids and glycerol (small intestine).

• Bile (from liver, stored in gall bladder) – emulsifies fats.

Ingestion
• Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of large food particles into
• smaller particles.
•  Physical digestion does not alter the chemical structure of the compounds but
• it increases the surface area.
• Physical digestion occurs during mastication, churning in the stomach and
• during peristalsis.
•  Food is moved through the digestive system by the rhythmic contraction and
• relaxation of circular muscles along the alimentary canal .This
• process is called peristalsis.
•  Peristalsis is a reflex action and is triggered by the presence of the food in the
• alimentary canal.
• Peristalsis will still transport food and water to your stomach
even if you stand on your head
• Once the bolus reaches the stomach, it is physically broken
down further by the strong contractions of the stomach muscles.
The bolus is also mixed with stomach acid and digestive
enzymes which forms a creamy mixture called chyme.
• Lipids are broken down by bile into tiny droplets which provide a
larger surface area on which enzymes can act to break them
down. The breaking down of lipids into tiny droplets is called
emulsification and is a type of physical digestion.
• Chemical digestion is the breaking down of large food
compounds into smaller food compounds using digestive
enzymes.
• Most food particles are too large to be absorbed from the
alimentary canal into the blood and therefore chemical digestion
is necessary.
• Enzymes are very sensitive to changes in temperature and pH
and only work in optimal temperatures and pH ranges.
Absorption
• What it is: The process of moving nutrients into the bloodstream.
• Details:
• Most absorption occurs in the small intestine (especially the jejunum).
• Tiny finger-like structures called villi and microvilli increase the surface
area for nutrient absorption into blood and lymph vessels.
Villi
• Villi are tiny, finger-like projections lining the inner walls of the small
intestine, especially in the jejunum and ileum.
• They greatly increase the surface area for absorption.
• Epithelial Cells (Surface Layer)
• Function: These cells form the outer layer of the villus and are
responsible for absorbing nutrients.
• Adaptation: They have tiny hair-like projections called microvilli
(forming a brush border) which increase surface area even more and
contain enzymes that help with final digestion.
• Capillary Network
• Function: Absorbs amino acids, glucose, water-soluble vitamins, and
minerals into the bloodstream.
• Adaptation: The capillaries are very close to the surface, so nutrients
have only a short distance to travel, making absorption quick and
efficient.
• Lacteal (Lymph Vessel)
• Function: Absorbs fats (fatty acids and glycerol) and fat-soluble
vitamins (A, D, E, K) into the lymphatic system.
• Adaptation: It lies in the center of the villus and is surrounded by
smooth muscle that helps move the absorbed fats into the lymph.
• Goblet Cells (in the epithelium)
• Function: Secrete mucus to lubricate and protect the inner surface of
the intestine.
• Adaptation: Mucus helps the passage of digested food and protects
the delicate epithelial cells.
• Thin Walls (One-Cell Thick Epithelium)
• Function: Allows nutrients to quickly pass through the wall of the
villus into the blood or lacteal.
• Adaptation: The thin barrier makes diffusion and active transport of
nutrients very efficient.
Structure of villi
Assimilation
• Assimilation is the process where absorbed nutrients are used by the body’s cells
for growth, energy, and repair.

• After nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream or lymph from the small
intestine:
• Glucose is transported to cells and used in cellular respiration to produce energy.
• Amino acids are used by cells to build proteins (for muscles, enzymes, hormones,
etc.).
• Fatty acids and glycerol are used to build cell membranes or stored as energy
reserves.
• Vitamins and minerals support various cellular functions.
Elimination ( egestion)
• What it is: Getting rid of undigested and unabsorbed food.
• Details: The remaining material moves into the large intestine, where
water is absorbed. The leftover waste is formed into feces and
eliminated from the body through the anus.