Leadership

What Is Leadership?
• Leadership
The ability to influence (irrespective of formal
rank) a group toward the achievement of goals
• Management
• Use of authority inherent in designated
formal rank to obtain
compliance(accomplishing an
organizational goals) from organizational
members
• Both are necessary for organizational
success
 Leadership & Management, Kotter
(1990)
Management
Leadership
Activities/
Functions Activities/Functioms

“Produces order “Produces change

and consistency” and movement”
• Planning & Budgeting • Establishing direction
• Organizing & Staffing • Aligning people
• Motivating/Inspiring
• Controlling & Problem Solving

Major activities of management & leadership

are played out differently; BUT, both are essential
for an organization to prosper.
 What Is Leadership?
• It is telling that McCallum and O’Connell (2009) stated
that the centerpiece of leadership is the relationship that
takes place between an organizational leader and one’s
followers. As a result, an organizational leader usually
structures or restructures a situation, viewpoints, and
expectation of organizational members (McCallum &
O’Connell, 2009). Furthermore, leadership skills are
learnable through one’s life experiences, coupled with
reflective practice and taking an impartial look at oneself
in the context of those particular experiences (Garic,
2006).
 The Evolution of Leadership
Definitions
• 1900-1929 – Control and centralization of power
• 1930s – Trait approach
• 1940s – Group approach
• 1950s – Group theory, shared goals, and effectiveness
• 1960s – Leadership as behavior
• 1970s – Organizational behavior
The Evolution of Leadership
Definitions
• 1980s – Explosion of research
- Leader’s will
- Influence
- Traits
- Transformation
 The Evolution of Leadership

• 21st century – The process of leadership

- Authentic leadership
- Spiritual leadership
- Servant leadership
 Conceptualizing Leadership

Some definitions view leadership as:

• The focus of group processes
• A personality perspective
• An act or behavior
• The power relationship between leaders & followers
• A transformational process
• A skills perspective
Leadership Defined

Leadership

a process whereby an individual influences a group of

individuals to achieve a common goal.
 Components Central to the
Phenomenon of Leadership

Leadershi Leaders
• Ispa process 
And followers are involved
• Involves influence together
 And followers need each
• Occurs within a group
other
context
 Often initiate and maintain
• Attends to common
the relationship
goals
 Are not above or better than
followers
Trait vs. Process Leadership

• Certain individuals
have special innate
characteristics or
qualities that
differentiate them
from nonleaders.
• Resides in select
people
• Restricted to those
with inborn talent
 Trait vs. Process Leadership

• Leadership is a property or set of properties possessed in

varying degrees by different people (Jago, 1982).
• Observed in leadership behaviors
• Can be learned
 Assigned vs. Emergent
Leadership
Assigned Emergent

• Leadership based on  An individual perceived by others as

occupying a position the most influential member of a
within an organization group or organization regardless of
• Team leaders the individual’s title
• Plant managers • Emerges over time through
• Department heads communication behaviors
• Verbal involvement
• Directors
• Being informed
• Seeking others’ opinions
• Being firm but not rigid
• Affected by personality and gender
 Leadership & Power

Power Bases of Social Power

• The capacity or potential to • Referent

influence. • Expert
• Ability to affect others’ beliefs, • Legitimate
attitudes, & actions • Reward
• Coercive
• Information
Power is a relational concern for both leaders
and followers.

French & Raven (1959), Raven

(1965)
 Leadership & Power
• Position Power derived • Personal Power is influence
from office or rank in derived from being seen as
an organization likable & knowledgeable

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
 Shift in Leadership Power, Kellerman (2012)

• Power no longer the domain of leaders

• Followers demand more from leaders
• Access to technology has empowered followers
• Leaders more transparent
• Decline in respect for leaders
• Leadership as social contract between leaders and
followers
 Leadership & Coercion
Coercion Involves Examples of Coercive Leaders

• Use of force to effect change • Adolf Hitler

• Influencing others to do • Jim Jones
something by manipulating • Taliban leaders
rewards and penalties in the
work environment
Power & restraint used to force followers to
• Use of threats, punishments, engage in extreme
behavior
& negative rewards
 Leadership & Management Zaleznik
(1977)
Leaders
Managers

 Multidirectional Influence

Unidirectional Authority
relationship(A manager  (leader promotes change, and works to
promotes a level of
understand people’s belief to gain
stability, exercises
their commitment)
authority, and works to
get goals accomplished) 
Are emotionally active & involved
 Are reactive  Shape ideas over responding to them

  Act to expand available options

Prefer to work with
people solving
 Change the way people think about
 what is possible
Have low emotional
involvement
 Skills Approach
Description
Perspective Definition
• Leader-centered  Leadership skills-The
perspective ability to use one’s
• Emphasis on skills knowledge and
and abilities that can competencies to
be learned and accomplish a set of
developed goals and objectives
 Three-Skill Approach (Katz, 1955)
• Technical Skill
• Human Skill
• Conceptual Skill
Basic Administrative Skills – Katz
(1955)

Leaders need all

three skills— but
relative
importance
changes based on
level of
management
 Technical Skill
• Having knowledge about and being proficient in a
specific type of work or activity.
• Specialized competencies

• Analytical ability

• Use of appropriate tools and techniques

• Technical skills involve hands-on ability with a product or process

• Most important at lower levels of management

 Human Skill
• Having knowledge about and being able to work with
people.
• Being aware of one’s own perspective and others’
perspectives at the same time
• Assisting group members in working cooperatively to achieve
common goals
• Creating an atmosphere of trust and empowerment of
members
• Important at all levels of the organization
 Conceptual Skill
• the ability to do the mental work of shaping meaning of
organizational policy or issues (what company stands for
and where it’s going)
• Works easily with abstraction and hypothetical notions
• Central to creating and articulating a vision and strategic plan
for an organization
• Most important at top management levels
 Skills-Based Model

 Skills Model Perspective

 Competencies

 Individual Attributes

 Leadership Outcomes

 Career Experiences

 Environmental Influences
 Skills Model Description
(Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, & Fleishman, 2000)

Perspective Skills-Based Model of Leadership

• Research studies (1990s) goal: to  Capability model - Examines

identify the leadership factors relationship between a leader’s
knowledge & skills & the leader’s
that create exemplary job performance.
performance in an organization
• Emphasizes the capabilities that Suggests many people have the
potential for leadership
make effective leadership
possible rather than what leaders
do
 Competencies Skills

Problem Solving Social Judgment Knowledge

Creative ability to Capacity to understand The accumulation of

solve new/unusual, people and social systems information & the
ill-defined - Perspective taking mental structures to
organizational - Social perceptiveness organize the
problems information
- Behavioral flexibility
- Social performance

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
 Individual Attributes

General Cognitive Crystallized

Motivation Personality
Ability Cognitive Ability

Person’s intelligence Intellectual ability Three aspects Any characteristic

• Perceptual processing learned or of motivation that helps people
acquired over time cope with complex
• Information processing • Willingness organizational
• General reasoning situations is
• Dominance probably related to
• Creative & divergent
thinking leader performance
• -Social good
• Memory

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
 Leadership Outcomes

Problem Solving Performance

Criteria = originality & quality of solutions to Degree to which a leader

problem situations – good problem solving has successfully performed
involves creating solutions that are: his/her assigned duties
- Logical
- Effective
- Unique
- Go beyond given information

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
 Career Experiences

Challenging Appropriate Hands-on

Mentoring Experience with
Assignments Training
Novelty

 Experience gained during career influences leader’s knowledge & skills to solve
complex problems
 Leaders learn and develop higher levels of conceptual capacity if they progressively
confront more complex and long-term problems as they ascend the organizational
hierarchy

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
 Environmental Influences

 Factors in a leader’s situation that lie outside

of his or her competencies, characteristics,
and experiences
– Internal environmental influences – Ex.
Outdated technology, skill level of employees
– External environmental influences – Ex.
Economic, political, or social issues; natural
disasters

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
 How Does the Skills Approach Work?

Focus of Skills Approach

Strengths
Criticisms
Application

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
 Skills Approach
Principal Research Perspectives
Focus

• Focus is primarily • Katz (1955) suggests importance of particular

descriptive – it describes leadership skills varies depending where leaders
reside in management hierarchy
leadership from skills
perspective • Mumford, Campion, & Morgeson, (2007)
suggest higher levels of all skills needed at
• Provides structure for higher levels of hierarchy
understanding the nature • Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding et al. (2000)
of effective leadership suggest leadership outcomes are direct result of
leader’s skilled competency in problem solving,
social judgment, & knowledge
 Strengths

• First approach to conceptualize and create a structure of the

process of leadership around skills (Provides structure for
understanding the nature of effective leadership)
• Describing leadership in terms of skills makes leadership
available to everyone
• Provides an expansive view of leadership that incorporates
wide variety of components (i.e., problem-solving skills,
social judgment skills)
• Provides a structure consistent with leadership education
programs
 Criticisms

• Breadth of the skills approach appears to extend beyond

the boundaries of leadership, making it more general, less
precise

• Weak in predictive value; does not explain how skills lead

to effective leadership performance

• Skills model includes individual attributes that are trait-

like
Trait Theories of Leadership

• Northouse (2010) stated that the trait theory appears to be

the first attempt to examine leadership effectiveness, in that,
researchers attempted to find universal individual
characteristics that might differentiate a leader from a
nonleader (House & Aditya, 1997). However, one of the
problems with the early trait studies was the insufficient
information about reliability properties of the trait
measures, which in turns appeared to influence the validity
of the trait measures as well (House & Aditya, 1997).
Trait Theories of Leadership

• Furthermore, most of the earlier studies concerning

leadership traits were done in the 1930s, but there was a re-
emergence in the 1970s, with clarifications to address
certain theoretical issues with previous studies on traits
(House & Aditya, 1997). Northouse (2010) noted that who a
leader is, tends to have implications for leadership traits.
Trait Theories of
Leadership
• Theories that consider personality, social, physical, or
intellectual traits to differentiate leaders from
nonleaders
• Not very useful until matched with the Big Five
Personality Framework
• Essential Leadership Traits
• Extroversion
• Conscientiousness
• Openness
• Emotional Intelligence (Qualified)
• Traits can predict leadership, but they are better at
predicting leader emergence than effectiveness.
 Great Person Theories

Trait Approach: one of the first systematic

attempts to study leadership

• “Great Man” Theories (early 1900s)

• Focused on identifying innate qualities and
characteristics possessed by great social,
political, & military leaders
Historical Shifts in Trait Perspective
 Major Leadership Traits
Traits to possess or cultivate if one seeks
to be
perceived by others as a leader:
• Intelligence – Verbal, perceptual, and reasoning
capabilities. Ex. Steve Jobs
• Self-Confidence – Certainty about one’s competencies and
skills. Ex. Steve Jobs
• Determination – Desire to get the job done (i.e., initiative,
persistence, drive). Ex. Dr. Paul Farmer
 Major Leadership Traits

Traits to possess or cultivate if one seeks to be

perceived by others as a leader:

• Integrity – The quality of honesty and trustworthiness.

Ex. Character Counts! program

• Sociability – Leader’s inclination to seek out pleasant

social relationships. Ex. Michael Hughes, university
president
 5-Factor Personality Model &
Leadership

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
 5-Factor Personality Model &
Leadership
Big Five & Leadership Study Using Meta-Analysis
(Judge et al., 2002)

Results – a strong relationship between personality traits and

leadership
• Extraversion – factor most strongly associated with leadership
• Most important trait of effective leaders
• Conscientiousness – second most related factor
• Openness – next most related
• Low Neuroticism
• Agreeableness – only weakly related to leadership

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
 Focus of Trait Approach

Leader Personality Assessments

• Focuses exclusively on  Organizations use personality

leader assessments to find “right” people
• What traits leaders exhibit • Assumption - will increase
• Who has these traits organizational effectiveness
• Specify characteristics/traits for specific
positions
• Personality assessment measures for “fit”
• Instruments: LTQ, Myers-Briggs
 Strengths

• Intuitively appealing • Highlights leadership

• Perception that leaders are component in the leadership
different in that they possess process
special traits • Deeper level understanding of
• People “need” to view leaders as how leader/personality is related
gifted to leadership process
• Credibility due to a century of • Provides benchmarks for what
research support to look for in a leader
 Criticisms
• Fails to delimit a definitive • List of most important
list of leadership traits leadership traits is highly
• Endless lists have emerged subjective
• Doesn’t take into account • Much subjective experience &
observations serve as basis for
situational effects identified leadership traits
• Leaders in one situation may
not be leaders in another • Research fails to look at traits in
situation relationship to leadership
outcomes
• Not useful for training &
development
 Emotional Intelligence &
Leadership
Definition Underlying Premise

Ability to perceive and:

 apply emotions to life’s tasks • people who are more

sensitive to their
reason/understand emotions
emotions & their
 express emotions impact on others will
 use emotions to facilitate be more effective
thinking leaders
 manage emotions within
oneself and relationships

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
 Different Ways to Measure EQ

• MSCEIT: EQ as a set of mental abilities

• to perceive, facilitate, understand, and manage emotion
• Goleman (1995, 1998): EQ as a set of personal and social
competencies
• self-awareness, confidence, self-regulation, conscientiousness,
and motivation
• Shankman & Allen (2002): EQ as awareness of three aspects
of leadership
• context, self, and others

Peter G. Northouse, Leadership: Theory and Practice, Seventh Edition. © 2016 SAGE Publications, Inc.
 Behavioral Approach

Focus Overall Scope

• Primarily a framework for • Offers a general means of
assessing leadership as assessing the behaviors of
behavior with a task and leaders
relationship dimension

.
 Strengths
• Behavioral approach marked a major shift in leadership research
from exclusively trait focused to include behaviors and actions of
leaders
• Broad range of studies on leaders style validates and gives
credibility to the basic tenets of the approach
• At conceptual level, a leader’s style is composed of two major
types of behaviors: task and relationship
• The behavioral approach is heuristic (empirical)—leaders can learn
a lot about themselves and how they come across to others by
trying to see their behaviors in light of the task and relationship
dimensions
 Criticisms

• Research has not adequately demonstrated how leaders’

styles are associated with performance outcomes
• No universal style of leadership that could be effective in
almost every situation
• Implies that the most effective leadership style is High-
High style (i.e., high task/high relationship); research
finding support is limited
 Application

• Many leadership training and development programs are

designed along the lines of the style approach.
• By assessing their own style, managers can determine how
they are perceived by others and how they could change
their behaviors to become more effective.
• The style approach applies to nearly everything a leader
does.
Behavioral Theories of
Leadership
• Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from
nonleaders
• Differences between theories of leadership:
• Trait theory: leadership is inherent, so we must identify the leader
based on his or her traits
• Behavioral theory: leadership is a skill set and can be taught to
anyone, so we must identify the proper behaviors to teach potential
leaders
Important Behavioral
Studies
• Initiating structure
• Consideration
Ohio

• Employee-oriented
• Production-oriented
Michigan
The Ohio Study
• Initiating structure is when the leader is able to
define and structure their role and that of their
employees to work toward the goals of the
organization.
• Consideration is the ability of the leader to gain
the trust and respect of their followers and to help
them feel appreciated for what they do. Both
behaviors have proven to be very important in an
effective leader.
The Michigan Study

• The University of Michigan Studies identified two key

dimensions of leadership behavior as well. They are similar
in nature to the Ohio State findings. However, the University
of Michigan studies classified these behaviors as employee-
oriented which looks at the interpersonal relationships
between the leader and their followers; and production-
oriented which focuses on the technical aspect of the job.
Again, both are important for successful leadership.
Contingency Theories
• While trait and behavior theories do help us understand leadership,
an important component is missing: the environment in which the
leader exists

• Contingency Theory adds this additional aspect to our understanding

leadership effectiveness studies

• Two key theories:

• Fiedler’s Model
• Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory
Fiedler Model

• Effective group performance depends on the proper match between

leadership style and the degree to which the situation gives the
leader control.
• Considers Three Situational Factors:
• Leader-member relations: degree of confidence and trust in the leader
• Task structure: degree of structure in the jobs
• Position power: leader’s ability to hire, fire, and reward
• For effective leadership: must change to a leader who fits the
situation or change the situational variables to fit the current leader
Fiedler Model

• In this theory Fiedler is trying to match the leader to the

context. He proposes that leadership style is fixed. So that if
the situation needs a charismatic leader and your current
leader does not exhibit that style, you need to change
leaders.
Graphic Representation of
Fiedler’s Model

Used to
determine
which type
of leader
to use in a
given
situation

E X H I B I T 12-2
E X H I B I T 12-2
 Situational Leadership
Theory
• A model that focuses on follower “readiness”
• Followers can accept or reject the leader
• Effectiveness depends on the followers’ response to the
leader’s actions
• “Readiness” is the extent to which people have the
ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task
Ability to follow Willingness to Follow Leadership Behavior

Unable Unwilling Give clear and specific directions

Unable Willing Display high task orientation

Able Unwilling Use a supportive and participatory style

Able Willing Doesn’t need to do much

Situational Leadership Theory

• The Situational Leadership Theory offers a model that takes

a look at the other side of the equation, the followers. The
focus of this theory is on the readiness of the follower to
follow. Each follower can decide for themselves whether
they will accept or reject the leader. If the leader is to be
effective, the followers much choose to accomplish the task
the leader has given them. The situational leadership
theory looks at readiness and defines it as the extent to
which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish
a specific task.
Situational Leadership Theory

• A leader should choose one of four behaviors depending on

follower readiness. If followers are unable and unwilling to
do a task, the leader needs to give clear and specific
directions; if they are unable and willing, the leader needs to
display high-task orientation to compensate for followers’
lack of ability and high relationship orientation to get them
to “buy into” the leader’s desires. If followers are able and
unwilling, the leader needs to use a supportive and
participative style; if they are both able and willing, the
leader doesn’t need to do much.
Transformational Leadership

• Ravazadeh and Ravazadeh (2013), the

transformational leadership model in comparison
with the transactional leadership model tends to go
further than the exchange of a particular resource
for productivity in an organization. Instead, a
transformational leader tries to develop and
empower an employee to realize one’s fullest
capability (Cavazotte, Moreno, & Bernardo, 2013).
Transformational Leadership

• For instance, transformational leader tends to influence a

follower and drives organizational change by displaying
certain values such as honesty and fairness (Groves &
Larocca). Furthermore, one might argue that a
transformational leader appeals to an employee’s mind and
heart through what is described as deep thinking and
empathy.
Transformational Leadership

• According to Krishnan (2004), the transformational

leadership model tends to consist of four factors. These
factors are: inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation,
individualized consideration, and charisma (idealized
influence)
Transformational Leadership

• For example, the inspirational motivation factor is when a

particular organizational leader tends to provide meaning to
a particular follower’s/ employee’s job task, and that
particular organizational leader also tends to support that
employee/follower to envisage an attractive future state for
his/her organization. One might argue that this is
accomplished when the particular employee/follower tends
to model the particular organizational leader’s own zeal and
passion (Warrick, 2011).
 Transformational Leadership

• The intellectual stimulation factor is when a particular

organizational leader tends to support a particular employee
to be innovative. This is achieved when a leader allows a
particular employee to criticize one’s own belief, reframing a
particular difficulty, and approaching that difficulty in a novel
way (Bacha & Walker, 2011)
Transformational Leadership

• The individualized consideration factor is when a particular

organizational leader tends to pay careful attention to a
particular employee/follower’s personal need to accomplish
and develop, and tends to create a novel learning
opportunity for the particular employee. In essence, the
individualized consideration is when a particular
organizational leader treats a particular employee as an
individual and not solely as a member of a particular group
(Jyoti & Dev, 2015).
Transformational
Leadership
• The charismatic factor tends to refer to what is described as
the charismatic action of a particular organizational leader,
which usually has implications for one’s beliefs and
principles (Jyoti & Dev, 2015). Bass (1985) stated that
idealized influence tends to relate to charisma. This is
because a leader who exhibits idealized influence considers
a particular follower’s need over his/her own need. A
particular follower admires and wants to identify with one’s
leader and mission.
Transformational Leadership

• Boerner, Eisenbeiss, and Griesser (2007) discussed that

there appear to be a series of quantitative studies that have
investigated the relationship between transformational
leadership attributes and organizational performance
performed over the years. These studies found that there
tends to be a positive relationship between transformational
leadership attributes and organizational performance in
terms of different organizational setting with different
criteria for success.
Transformational Leadership

• In addition, studies also found that transformational

leadership attributes tend to relate positively to what is
described as improvement in the shared identity of
particular workgroup (Boerner et al., 2007). According to
Polychroniou (2009), this shared identity usually encourages
team spirit and cooperation among organizational
members. Finally, studies also found that transformational
leadership attributes tend to have a considerable, positive
impact on organizational commitment among employees in
an organization (Chen, Chen, & Chen, 2010).
Transactional Leadership

• According to Northouse (2012), there are two main

transactional leadership factors: contingency reward and
management-by-exception. Firstly, the contingency reward
tends to be an exchange process, which relates an
employee’s effort to a particular external reward. This means
that an organizational leader clarifies an employee’s
expectation and offers recognition and reward when a
particular goal is accomplished (Groves & Larocca, 2011).
Transactional Leadership

• Secondly, Northouse (2012) stated there are two types of

management-by-exception: active and passive. For instance,
an active type of management-by-exception occurs when an
organizational leader observes an employee closely for a
mistake and then takes the necessary corrective action.
Meanwhile, the passive type of management is when an
organizational leader tends to intervene only after certain
standards have not been realized or met (Northouse, 2012).
Transactional Leadership/
Transformational Leadership
• Burns (1978) defined leadership as a type of relationship
that encourages a particular follower to engage in what is
described as a joint purpose that usually signifies the
motivation of a particular leader and a follower. In addition,
this type of motivation of both leader and follower might be
classified as either transactional or transformational
(Krishnan, 2004).
Transformational Leaders
Inspire followers to transcend their self-interests for the good of the organization

Transact •Contingent Reward

•Management by Exception (active)
•Management by Exception (passive)

ional •Laissez-Faire

Transfor •Idealized Influence

•Inspirational Motivation
•Intellectual Stimulation

mational •Individualized Consideration

Charismatic Leadership

Many of history’s most effective leaders like Napoleon and

De Gaulle in France, Lincoln and Roosevelt in the United
States, Peter the Great and Lenin in Russia, Mahatma Gandhi
in India, Mao Zedong in China, Mandela in South Africa
were known as dynamic, charismatic and inspirational
leaders. Truly charismatic leaders are considered to possess
some “magical” qualities (Kaul, 2013).
Charismatic Leadership

For example, Alexander the Great crossed the unconquerable

Alps Mountain with his soldiers, a feat which no one had
achieved. What was it that led their followers to believe in
them that they did the unthinkable? All of the charismatic
leaders had unique traits and qualities which made them
powerful agents of social change
Charismatic Leadership

• Charismatic leaders “cause followers to become highly committed to

the leader’s mission, to make significant personal sacrifices, and to
perform above and beyond the call of duty.” This influence over
people is entrenched in the leader’s values, passion and logic

•Charismatic leaders are also able to help generate organizational

meaning and enthusiasm with the meaningful vision that they express.
It is known that the organization can take on characteristics
of a cause, or a movement of reform) and this helps. Accordingly, the
effi ciency and effectiveness of an organization in attaining its goals is
also enhanced because of the influence of a charismatic leader (Kaul,
2013).
Negatives of Charismatic
Leadership
• Although they can have strong positive effects on
organizations, but it needs to be pointed out that
charismatic leaders can also create substantial negative
outcomes referred to this as the “dark side” of charismatic
leadership, which he states can eclipse the bright side to the
disadvantage of both the leader and the organization (Kaul,
2013).
• The actions of charismatic leaders can make the
management and decision making processed slightly
unstable and uncertain, and can also increase the risk
intensities of the organisation. It can also make the
organisational members more open to manipulation and
deception by the charismatic leaders
Servant Leadership

• Servant leadership is one that balances humanity in the

workplace and the bottom line (Wong & Davey, 2007). This is
because one might argue that the focus is on people and the
future rather than on solely outcomes and processes. It is
telling that in today’s business world, the challenges for an
organizational leader are considered threefold (Wong &
Davey, 2007).
Servant Leadership
• Firstly, one needs to be able to build a positive workplace
that attracts and retains talented knowledge workers.
Secondly, one needs to be able to develop an employee and
untaps that person’s creative potential. Thirdly, one needs to
be able to support innovation and risk-taking to adjust to an
unpredictable future (Wong & Davey, 2007).
 Servant Leadership
• For example, the servant leadership model is considered
flexible and situational, in that, a servant leader is described
as one who is not imprisoned by one’s own need for power.
Thus, one is able to use different types of legitimate power
in order to assist employee development and achieve an
organizational goal (Wong & Davey, 2007). In essence,
servant leadership is applicable to all types of leadership
with the exception of autocratic leadership (Wong & Davey,
2007). Finally, according to Wong and Davey (2007), when a
servant leadership approach is being used in an organization,
it usually has implications for the following and more:
Servant Leadership

• A leader humanizes the workplace as one treats an

employee as a human being, worthy of “unconditional
dignity and respect” (Wong & Davey, 2007, p. 3).
• A leader earns trust as one puts the legitimate need of an
employee above one’s own self-interest (Kreitner &
Kinicki, 2007; Wong & Davey, 2007).
• leader listens with open-mindedness to an employee.
• A leader gains support and participation as one values
team-building, and involves an employee in the decision-
making process.
• A leader earns respect when he places benefits to
workers and society above the bottom line
Servant Leadership

• Wong and Davey (2007) discussed that servant leadership is

not based on the development of certain set of leadership
attributes. Instead, a person needs a deep change in one’s
attitude and some type of inner transformation (Wong &
Davey, 2007). This is because, one of the qualities of a
servant leader is one who has a great heart. According to
Wong and Davey (2007), a leader with a great heart is when
one is able to reach out to someone else who does not
agree with that person. In addition, one does not mind being
proven wrong or outshone by someone else.
Servant Leadership

• Jago (2012) that no one style fits all leadership approach

usually satisfies all leader-follower relationship dynamics.
However, the servant leadership approach is considered
flexible and incorporates all leadership styles except
autocratic leadership style.
 Servant Leadership
• Therefore, whether a leader is charismatic or
methodological, one can always benefit from practicing
servant leadership (Wong & Davey, 2007). Furthermore, one
who practicing servant leadership is also free to be
situational and flexible, because one is no longer imprisoned
by one’s own need for power and pride (Wong & Davey,
2007). As a result, one is able to use different types of
legitimate power to accomplish organizational goals.
Power and Leadership

• McCallum and O’Connell (2009) stated that a leader usually

structures and restructures different situations, viewpoints,
and expectations of others. In essence, leadership is a
relational process between a leader and followers and is
molded by the context in which that leadership takes place.
Thus, Wong and Davey (2007) opined that no leader is
usually effective in today’s culturally diverse workplace when
one adopts only one type of leadership style.
Power and Leadership

• According to Braynion (2004), leadership is a

power relationship that exists between an
organizational leader and one’s followers.
Essentially, an organizational leader uses one’s
power to influence the behaviors of others in
order to achieve the organizational objective.
Power and Leadership

• According to Pinchot (1992), when power is

considered as a dominant control mechanism, it
tends to block creativity in an organization in
terms of intelligence. Thus, there is always the
advocacy for the flatter organizational structure
with empowered individuals acting as a team. In
addition, an effective organizational leader
tends to give an employee a sense of autonomy
to select one’s own goals then to recognize
one’s own system in doing one’s work (Pinchot,
1992).
Power and Leadership

• For example, the Chinese philosopher Confucius is one of

the first proponents of participatory power in one’s
leadership. According to Bi, Ehrich, and Ehrich (2012),
Confucius lived in the period of Chinese history described as
the Warring States. During this time there was political and
social unrest because several states were in conflict with
each other.
Power and Leadership

• Nevertheless, Confucius believed that a living organization

should be a community of people who pursue common
goals. In addition, fellowship should be based on common
interests that foster long-lasting relationships. Thus, one may
argue that Confucius believed in empowerment, and
collaboration through his leadership method called
humaneness (Bi et al., 2012).
Power and Leadership

• According to Kreitner and Kinicki (2007), legitimate power is

usually linked to a person’s formal position in an
organization. Thus, a particular organizational leader who
has legitimate power tends to obtain compliance basically
because of one’s formal authority to make certain
organizational decisions.
Power and Leadership

• However, the use of one’s legitimate power might be either

negative or positive in terms of managing others. For
instance, an organizational leader with negative legitimate
power is usually considered as demeaning and intimidating
to those individuals being influenced (Kreitner & Kinicki,
2007). However, when an organizational leader empowers
an employee, it means one relinquishes the traditional
means of power and delegates decision-making authority to
that particular employee (Russell, 2001).
Power and Leadership

• Nye (2008) opined that today’s leadership is changing, and

therefore, soft power seems more important than before.
This is because there seems to be the need for a more
participative style of leadership especially as organizational
hierarchies are becoming decentralized.
Power and Leadership

• Thus, Nye (2008) stated that each leader should practice soft
power at times in one’s leadership. According to Nye (2008),
this soft power is the ability of a leader to get what one
wants by attraction rather than force. In essence, an
organizational leader may need to use relationship skills
such as one’s ability to listen to others, instead of, a
chargeahead type of leadership (Helgesen, 2008).
Power and Leadership

• Nye (2008) stated that an effective organizational leader

needs to have a balance between the use of soft and hard
power. For instance, Nye (2008) stated that when an
organizational leader is overly assertive it may damage one’s
relationship with others. Meanwhile, when an organizational
leader is not assertive because one only depends on
relationship skills, this may limit organizational achievement.
Power and Leadership

• Empowerment is considered as an essential component for

excellent leadership (Russell & Stone, 2002 ). This is because
it promotes teamwork and tends to reflect values such as
love and equality. However, in order for an organizational
leader to accomplish empowerment, one needs to pull
rather than push others along. In essence, when one uses
the pulls influence, it usually attracts and energizes others.
In addition, empowerment creates different leaders at
different levels of a particular organization (Russell & Stone,
2002).
Power and Leadership

• Southwest Airlines was described as one of the largest U.S.

domestic airline carriers, in that, it had operations in nearly
50 domestic airports and 30 states within the United States
(Smith, 2004). More importantly, it appeared to have an
organizational culture that encourages high morale among
its organizational members such as employees. Thus,
employees are considered as family members (McLaughlin,
2004). This is because employees are viewed as the most
essential organizational asset, and therefore, former chief
executive officer, Kelleher and other similar-minded
organizational leaders appeared to empower employees
(Kreitner & Kinicki, 2007).
Power and Leadership

• According to Russell and Stone (2002), empowerment is the

process whereby there is an entrusting relationship between
an organizational leader and one’s followers, in that, the
organizational leader shares power with one’s followers. In
addition, empowerment focuses on teamwork, and
therefore, an organizational leader’s behavior tends to pull
rather than pushes others along (Russell &Stone, 2002).
Emotional Intelligence and
Leadership
• According to Chrusciel (2006), emotional intelligence might
be defined as one’s ability to control one’s own and others’
emotions to differentiate among them and to apply this
information to direct one’s own thinking and behavior.
Emotional Intelligence and
Leadership
• Goleman and Boyatzis (2008) explained that studies found
that the extent of a person’s emotional skills is usually
established by the time that person reaches into the mid-
20s. Thus, one’s associated actions become what is
described as deep-seated habits (Goleman & Boyatzis,
2008). However, according to Goleman and Boyatzis (2008),
there is a five –part process, which assists a person to rewire
one’s mindset toward a more emotionally intelligent
attitude.
Emotional Intelligence and
Leadership
• It is telling that the five-part process described by Goleman
and Boyatzis (2008) appears to have implications for five
questions. More importantly, these questions are applicable
to change an undesirable attitude in a person. The five
questions are as follows:
• What does one want to be?
• Who is the person now?
• How does one get from here to there?
• How does one make change stick?
• Who can help the person?
Emotional Intelligence and
Leadership
• For example, Goleman and Boyatzis (2008) opined that the
first question usually prompts a person to examine what one
would be if everything were going right. The second
question prompts the person to obtain the truth about
oneself through keeping an open outlook toward criticism or
assessment by others. The third question prompts the
person to develop an action plan after one compares who
one wants to be, and how others see the person.
Emotional Intelligence and
Leadership
• The fourth question prompts the person to be cognizant that
in order to make any change stick, it requires practice. This is
because a change resides in the brain, and therefore, it takes
one to redo things constantly to change what is described as
an old neural habit (Goleman & Boyatzis, 2008). The last
question prompts the person to build a community of
supporters
Emotional Intelligence and
Leadership
This is because it is discussed that a person does not improve
one’s emotional intelligence without assistance from others.
For instance, this assistance usually provides valuable
feedback about how one’s action influences others, and to
examine one’s progress in what is described as one’s learning
agenda (Goleman & Boyatzis, 2008).
Emotional Intelligence and
Leadership
• It is intriguing that emotional intelligence gives a
competitive edge to an organization (Chrusciel, 2006). This is
because the goal is to be able to utilize one’s own emotions
as well as the emotions of others to accomplish a prescribed
organizational goal. Thus, self –awareness is described as
the key competence of emotional intelligence (Pinos, Twigg,
Parayitam & Olson, 2006).
Emotional Intelligence and
Leadership
• It is one’s ability to comprehend what one is feeling and how
to direct those feelings. More importantly, it enables a
person to be cognizant of one’s own strengths and
limitations, which creates the backbone for controlling one’s
emotions (Pinos et al., 2006).
Emotional Intelligence and
Leadership
• According to Chrusciel (2006), studies have found that there
is a strong relationship between transformational leadership
behaviors and emotional intelligence (EI). However, theorists
such as Palmer argued that it is the active use of emotional
characteristics such the ability to monitor and control one’s
emotions that is important, rather than solely the
measurement of EI characteristics.
Emotional Intelligence and
Leadership
• Thus, it is telling that effective leadership usually requires an
organizational leader to know how well one is performing,
thereby; shaping a vision for the future represents a
strategic thinking to develop one’s ability to focus on
external factors and people served (Pinos et al., 2006).
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