Course Contents

• Significance: objectives of research, Types of research, Research

approaches, Research process: steps involved in research process, (Survey,
Observation, case study, experimental, historical and comparative methods)
• Data: Types of Data, Data collection, processing, analysis, Review of
literature, Research problem, Hypothesis.
• Bioethics: Ethical, legal, social and scientific issues in Biological Research.
• Plagiarism: Funding Sources: A brief idea about the funding agencies such
as HEC, PSF, USAID etc.
• Writing of Research Proposal: Thesis/Report and Research Paper: Footnotes
and Bibliography
Introduction
• The study of conducting research is Research Methodology.
• Research: The word research is composed of two syllables “Re” and
“Search”.
• “Re” is the prefix meaning ‘Again or over again or a new’ and “Search”
is the latter meaning ‘to examine closely and carefully’ or ‘to test and
try’.
• Together they form, a careful, systematic, patient study and
investigation in some field of knowledge undertaken to establish
principles / policies.
Research can also be defined as

1. Search for knowledge

2. Systematic and scientific search for getting relevant answers on any
taken up specific topic.
3. Scientific enquiry into a subject.
4. Research is a movement from the unknown to the known.
5. It is the voyage of discovery
• Acc to Bulmer,
• Research is primarily committed to establishing systematic, reliable
and valid knowledge about the social world.
• Acc. To Clifford Woody,
• Research comprises of
• Defining and redefining problems.
• Formulating hypothesis (basic idea)
• Collecting
• Organizing
• Evaluating datas
• Making decisions
• Suggesting solutions
• Reaching conclusions
• Finally, carefully testing the conclusions
• To determine whether they fit the formulated Hypothesis.
Research Methods
• May be understood as all those methods or techniques that are used
by a researcher for conducting a Research depending upon the
methods.
(1) Library Research: analysis of historical records and documents.
• - Statistical compilation, references, abstracts, guides manipulation
(handle with skill)
• (2) Field Research: Observation, questionnaires, personal, Group or
telephonic interviews, case study
• (3) Laboratory Research: Group (team) study, use of audio visual
tools.
Objectives of the research
• Descriptive
• Correlational
• Explanatory
• Exploratory
Descriptive

• Descriptive research refers to research that provides an accurate

portrayal of characteristics of a particular individual, situation, or
group.
• Descriptive research, also known as statistical research
• Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation,
problem, phenomenon, service or programme, or provides
information about , say, living condition of a community, or describes
attitudes towards an issue
Descriptive studies are a means of
• discovering new meaning,
• describing what exists,
• determining the frequency with which something occurs, and
categorizing information.
• Descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and
studied, which has an impact of the lives of the people it deals with.
• For example, finding the most frequent disease that affects the
children of a town. The reader of the research will know what to do to
prevent that disease thus, more people will live a healthy life.
Correlational research
• Correlational research refers to the systematic investigation or
statistical study of relationships among two or more variables,
without necessarily determining cause and effect.
• For example, to test the hypothesis “ Listening to music lowers blood
pressure levels” there are 2 ways of conducting research
• Experimental – group samples and make one group listen to music
and then compare the Bp levels
• • Survey – ask people how they feel ? How often they listen? And
then compare
Explanatory research
• Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a
relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or
phenomenon.
• Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is
known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular
research study ( feasibility study / pilot study).
Exploratory Research
• To identifying, defining, and analyzing a problem, there are several
ways of obtaining insights and getting a clearer idea about these issues.
• Exploratory research is one of the ways of accomplishing this.
• The exploratory study entails a few basic strategies in gaining insights
into the problem. It is accomplished through such efforts as:
• Pilot survey
• Case studies
• Focus group interview and
• Experience survey
• Pilot Survey
• A pilot survey collects proxy data from the ultimate subjects of the
study to serve as a guide for the large study. A pilot study generates
primary data, usually for qualitative analysis.
• This characteristic distinguishes a pilot survey from secondary data
analysis, which gathers background information.
• Case Studies
• Case studies are quite helpful in the diagnosis of a problem and
paving the way to defining the problem.
• Case studies intensively investigate one or a few situations identical to
the researcher’s problem situation.
• Focus Group Interviews
• Focus group interviews, an unstructured free-flowing interview with a
small group of people, may also be conducted to understand and
define a research problem.
• Experience Survey
• Experience survey is another strategy to deal with the problem of
identifying and defining the research problem. It is an exploratory
research endeavour, in which individuals who are knowledgeable and
experienced about a particular research problem are intimately
consulted in an attempt to understand the problem.
• These persons are sometimes known as key informants, and an
interview with them is popularly known as the Key Informant
Interview (KII).
Application of Research
1. Pure Research (Basic)
Basic Research: Basic research is driven by a scientist's curiosity or interest
in a scientific question. The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge,
not to create or invent something. There is no obvious commercial value to
the discoveries that result from basic research. For example, basic science
investigations probe for answers to questions such as:
• How did the universe begin?
• What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?
• How do slime molds reproduce?
• What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?
• Most scientists believe that a basic, fundamental understanding of all
branches of science is needed in order for progress to take place.
• In other words, basic research lays down the foundation for the
applied science that follows.
• If basic work is done first, then applied spin-offs often eventually
result from this research.
2. Applied research
This type of research is designed to solve practical problems of the
modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake.
One might say that the goal of the applied scientist is to improve the
human condition.
For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:
• improve agricultural crop production
• treat or cure a specific disease
• improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of
transportation.
• Some scientists feel that the time has come for a shift in emphasis
away from purely basic research and toward applied science.
• This trend, they feel, is necessitated by the problems resulting from
global overpopulation, pollution, and the overuse of the earth's
natural resources.
Inquiry Mode
1. Quantitative research
• Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used
to test or confirm theories and assumptions. This type of research
can be used to establish generalizable facts about a topic.
• Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations
recorded as numbers, and surveys with closed-ended questions.
2. Qualitative research
• Qualitative research is expressed in words. It is used to
understand concepts, thoughts or experiences. This type of research
enables you to gather in-depth insights on topics that are not well
understood.
• Common qualitative methods include interviews with open-ended
questions, observations described in words, and literature reviews
that explore concepts and theories.
3. In mixed-methods research, you use both qualitative and
quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer
your research question.
Research Process

• There are a variety of approaches to research in any field of

investigation, irrespective of whether it is applied research or basic
research.
• Each particular research study will be unique in some ways because of
the particular time, setting, environment, and place in which it is
being undertaken.
• Nevertheless, all research endeavors share a common goal of
furthering our understanding of the problem and thus all traverse
through certain basic stages, forming a process called the research
process.
• These 8 stages in the research process are;
• Identifying the problem.
• Reviewing literature.
• Setting research questions, objectives, and hypotheses.
• Choosing the study design.
• Deciding on the sample design.
• Collecting data.
• Processing and analyzing data.
• Writing the report.
Step – 1: Identifying the Problem

• The first and foremost task in the entire process of scientific research
is to identify a research problem.
• A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all-
important phases of the research process, starting from setting
objectives to the selection of the research methodology.
• Researcher need to identify both;
• Non-research Problem, and
• Research Problem.
Step – 2: Reviewing of Literature

• A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research process.

It enables the researcher to formulate his problem in terms of the
specific aspects of the general area of his interest that has not been so
far researched.
• Such a review, not only provides him exposure to a larger body of
knowledge but also equips him with enhanced knowledge to efficiently
follow the research process.
• A review of previous documents to similar or related phenomena is
essential even for the beginning researchers.
• To ignore the existing literature may lead to wasted effort on the part of
the researchers
Step – 3: Setting research questions, objectives, and
hypotheses

• After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers should

make a formal statement of the problem leading to research objectives.
• An objective will precisely say what should be researched, to delineate
the type of information that should be collected, and provide a
framework for the scope of the study. The best expression of a research
objective is a well-formulated, testable research hypothesis.
• A hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition that can be
refuted or supported by empirical data. Hypothetical statements assert
a possible answer to a research question.
Step -4: Choosing the study
design
• The research design is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling
objectives and answering research questions.
• There are four basic research designs that a researcher can use to
conduct his or her study;
• survey,
• experiment,
• secondary data study, and
• observational study.
Step – 5: Deciding on the
sample design
• Sample design refers to the methods to be followed in selecting a
sample from the population and the estimating technique, vis-a-vis
formula for computing the sample statistics.
• It is used to select sample units for measurement (e.g., select
individuals from a population or locations to sample within a study
area)
Step – 6: Collecting data

• The gathering of data may range from simple observation to a large-scale

survey in any defined population. There are many ways to collect data.
• With the variation in the type of data (qualitative or quantitative) to be
collected, the method of data collection also varies.
• The most common means for collecting quantitative data is
the structured interview.
• Studies that obtain data by interviewing respondents are called surveys.
Data can also be collected by using self-administered questionnaires.
Telephone interviewing is another way in which data may be collected.
• Other means of data collection include the use of secondary sources,
such as the census, vital registration records, official documents,
previous surveys, etc.
• Qualitative data are collected mainly through in-depth interviews,
focus group discussions, KII, and observational studies.
Step-7: Processing and
Analyzing Data
• Data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to a
manageable size, developing summaries, searching for patterns, and
applying statistical techniques for understanding and interpreting the
findings in the light of the research questions.
• Further, the researcher, based on his analysis, determines if his
findings are consistent with the formulated hypotheses and theories.
Step-8: Writing the report – Developing Research Proposal, Writing Report, Disseminating and Utilizing Results

• The entire task of a research study is accumulated in a document

called a proposal.
• It systematically outlines the particular research methodology and
details the procedures that will be utilized at each stage of the
research process.
• The end goal of a scientific study is to interpret the results and draw
conclusions.
• To this end, it is necessary to prepare a report and transmit the
findings and recommendations to administrators, policymakers, and
program managers for the intended purpose of making a decision.
• There are various forms of research reports: term papers,
dissertations, journal articles, papers for presentation at professional
conferences and seminars, books, and so on. The results of a research
investigation prepared in any form are of little utility if they are not
communicated to others.
References
• A Referencing style is a specific format for presenting in-text
references and bibliography
• The act of mentioning something in speech or in writing : the act of
referring to something or someone.
• The type of reference include:
• Journal reference
• Book reference
• Internet reference
Reference Elements
• Author name
• Article name
• Journal name
• Year
• Volume
• Page number
Different styles or writing styles
• Harvard styles
• American Psychological Association style (APA)
• Vancouver style
• MLA citation style (Modern language association)
• The Chicago Manual style
• Royal society of chemistry
APA STYLE
• There are two parts to referencing: the citations within the text of your paper
and the reference list at the end of your paper.

• The APA referencing style is an "author-date" style, so the citation in the text
consists of the author(s) and the year of publication given wholly or partly in
round brackets.

• Use only the surname of the author(s) followed by a comma and the year of
publication. Include page, chapter or section numbers if you need to be
specific, for example if you are quoting, paraphrasing or summarising:
•
• No distinction is made between books, journal articles, internet
documents or other formats except for electronic documents that do
not provide page numbers. In this case use the paragraph number, if
available, with the abbreviation para.

• The full details of the source are given in a reference list at the end of
the document:
• Reference list entries contain all the information that is required to
follow up your source. Reference lists in APA are arranged
alphabetically by author.
Difference between References and
Bibliography
• Reference is list of sources we have cited in our text arranged in
order they appeared within the text. It is usually put at the end of
work but can also appear as footnote (at the bottom of the page), or
endnote (a t the end of each chapter) which serves a similar function

• Bibliography is a list of sources we have consulted but not specifically

citied in our work including background reading . It is arranged
alaphbateically by author surname
Plagiarism
• Plagiarism is a form of cheating and is an academic offense. It arises
where work submitted by a student is not their own and has been
taken from another source. The original material is then hidden either
by not referencing it properly or by not mentioning it at all, which is a
breach of academic integrity.
What is considered plagiarism?
• Turning in someone else's work as your own
• Copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit
• Giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation
• Changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source
without giving credit
• Copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the
majority of your work, whether you give credit or not
• Changing the words of an original source is not sufficient to prevent
plagiarism. If you have retained the essential idea of an original
source, and have not cited it, then no matter how drastically you may
have altered its context or presentation, you have still plagiarized.
• Most cases of plagiarism can be avoided, however, by citing sources.
Simply acknowledging that certain material has been borrowed, and
providing your audience with the information necessary to find that
source, is usually enough to prevent plagiarism.
• The most common forms of plagiarism are 3:
• Cut/copy and pasted material from the Web Copying the work of
another student (past or present) including essay material, laboratory
data or computer source code
• Copying course material or lecture notes
• Copying material out of a textbook or journal
Examples
• Turnitin Originality (HEC recognized)
• PlagiarismCheck.org
• Plagiarismsearch.com
• PlagScan, from Ouriginal
• Plagiarism Detector
BIOETHICS
• The most common way of defining "ethics": norms for conduct that
distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behavior.
• Bioethics is a field of inquiry centered around the uses and moral
implications of medicine and the bio-sciences.
• Scholars and researchers come from a very wide variety of professional
and disciplinary backgrounds, like medicine, nursing, law, theology,
philosophy, history, and other humanities and science disciplines.
• They employ a range of methodological and theoretical approaches to
investigate questions of policy, practice, and meaning in an increasingly
technical and medicalized world
Funding agencies
• A funding agency is an organization or institution that provides
financial support for specific projects, research, or initiatives, often
through grants. These agencies can be governmental, private, or non-
profit entities and typically have specific criteria and guidelines for
funding applications.
• Examples includes: HEC, PSF, USAID etc