1.

What is Discourse
Analysis?
DR. S AL AM ALS AL AMAH
OUTLINE
1.1 What is discourse analysis?
The relationship between language and context
The discourse structure of texts
Cultural ways of speaking and writing
1.2 Different views of discourse analysis
Discourse as the social construction of reality
Discourse and socially situated identities
Discourse and performance
Discourse and intertextuality
DEFINITION: What is Discourse
Analysis?
What is Discourse Analysis?
- It examines patterns of language across texts.
- It considers the relationship between language and the social and cultural contexts in which it is used.
- It considers how the use of language presents different views of the world and different understandings.
- It examines how the use of language is influenced by relationships between participants.
- It examines the effects the use of language has upon social identities and relations.
- It considers how views of the world, and identities, are constructed through the use of discourse.
What is Discourse Analysis?

- Discourse analysis is interested in the choices people make in a particular setting to

form and interpret meaning.
- It is then the analysis of language in use.
- Discourse analysis is concerned with the description and analysis of both spoken and
written interactions.

Discourse analysis was first introduced by Zellig Harris (1952). He had two interests:
- the examination of language beyond the level of the sentence
- the relationship between linguistic and non-linguistic behavior
 The relationship between language and
context.
(the relationship between linguistic and non-linguistic
behavior)
Context: is the linguistic and the non-linguistic environment in which a word(s) is used. Text
interpretation depends on its context.
Example:
The runway is full at the moment
1- Said by air traffic controller to a pilot: it is not possible to land.
2- Said to a friend who is waiting to pick someone: an explanation of why the plane is late

The same discourse can be understood differently by different language users as well as
understood differently in different contexts.
Thus,
In order to understand the meaning of what a person says or writes we need to know something
about the situational and cultural context in which it is located.
Discourse analysis considers the relationship between language and the contexts in which it is
used.
Its primary purpose is to provide a deeper understanding and appreciation of texts and how
they become meaningful to their users.
The discourse structure of texts
Discourse Analysts are interested in how people structure what they say; the organization of
spoken and written language varies across cultures and languages.
Example on p.4: In Japanese culture, it is customary to begin an email with a weather reference, whereas in English, it is not a ritual
requirement.

Discourse analysts started first to examine the stages people go through in a particular interaction
(e.g. buying and selling).
Other researchers continued this work by investigating the optional and obligatory stages in
service encounters.
E.g. “Hi, How are you?” may not be obligatory in at the start of a service encounter at a busy
supermarket, but “can I have…” or “Give me….” typically is obligatory in English.
These stages can be varied depending on the context, and other variables such as age.
Continued..
Researchers in conversation analysis studied recurring patterns in spoken interactions, such as
how people open and close conversations and how they take turns and overlap their speech.
Cultural ways of speaking and
writing
Discourse analysts explore how different cultures express things in language.
Different cultures have different ways of speaking and writing (E.g., the ways of buying and selling things in
different cultures). The sequence of events may be the same, but the ways of using language and non-
linguistic behavior may differ.
Example:
In English-speaking countries, there is a greater ritual use of "Please" and "Thanks" on the part of the
customer. However, in Japan, the person at the cash register will typically say much more than the
customer in this situation, who may say nothing. This does not mean the Japanese customer is being rude,
but rather that there are culturally different ways of doing things with language in different cultures.
Thus, understanding cultural ways of speaking and writing is crucial for effective cross-cultural
communication.
 1.2. Different views of discourse analysis
Different researchers have different views of what discourse analysis is and how it should be approached.
- Fairclough distinguishes between textually oriented discourse analysis and discourse analysis with a social theoretical
orientation, but argues that the two perspectives are not mutually exclusive.
- Similarly, Cameron and Kulick argue that language in use is always socially situated and needs to be interpreted in terms of its social
meanings and functions.

David Crystal's analysis of Barack Obama's victory speech is an example of textually oriented discourse analysis. Crystal focuses
on the linguistic features of the speech. In contrast, Higgins' analysis of the same speech is an example of more socially oriented
discourse analysis. Higgins traces the use of rhetorical techniques back to ancient Greek and Roman oratory, and discusses how
Obama's references to previous leaders and his use of the phrase "Yes, we can" draw on shared social and cultural histories.

Discourse analysis is a view of language:

- at the level of text

- at the level of acts i.e. achieving communicative goals
- at the level of communities and societies
- at the level of ideas and beliefs
So,
There are two approaches to discourse analysis:
1- Textually oriented discourse analysis: focuses on the linguistic features of the speech.
2- Socially oriented discourse analysis: draws on shared social and cultural perspectives.
Discourse as the social construction of reality

- Discourse is the social construction of reality, where language both shapes and
is shaped by social and cultural practices.
- Discourse creates a view of the self and the world that the speaker or writer
wishes to convey.
-Different discourses can create different realities for different people.
Discourse and socially situated
identities

Social identity is not only displayed through language, but also through the way
we dress, act, interact, and think in certain ways.
- Discourses involve socially situated identities that we enact and recognize in
different settings.
- Discourses include culture-specific ways of performing and recognizing
identities and activities.
- Discourses involve different styles of language, as well as characteristic ways of
acting, interacting, feeling, showing emotion, gesturing, dressing, posturing,
valuing, thinking, believing, knowing, speaking, listening, reading, and writing.
Task
Emily: “This year, I am working as a teacher while also pursuing my master’s degree in
education…”
a. How many socially situated identities are constructed in this utterance?
Two socially situated identities.
b. What are these identities?
A teacher and a graduate student.
This example demonstrates how individuals can navigate multiple identities in their personal and
professional lives.
Discourse and performance

The notion of performativity derives from speech act theory and the work of the linguistic
philosopher Austin.
It is based on the view that in saying something, we do it.
For example, in promising, we commit to do something. Discourses here are socially constructed,
rather than ‘natural’. We are what we do. Consider how a rap singer acts and the social identity
s/he creates.
Discourse and intertextuality

- Texts, whether they are spoken or written, make their meanings

against the background of other texts and things that have been said
on other occasions.
Intertextuality: is the relationship between texts, where texts may implicitly or explicitly
cite, refer to, or allude to other texts.

- e.g. writers draw on intertextual resources to write their texts.

Discussion
1. What is discourse analysis and why is it important in understanding language use?

2. How does performativity contribute to the creation of social identities?

3. What is intertextuality?

4. What are some of the different ways to approach discourse analysis and what insights do they offer?

5. What are the typical ways to start/end a conversation with a stranger, a famous person, or a doctor?