Soils

Soil: some definitions

Soil can be defined as the solid material on the Earth’s surface
that results from the interaction of weathering and biological activity on
the parent material or underlying hard rock.

The study of soils as naturally occurring

phenomena is called pedology
(from the Greek word pedon, meaning soil
or earth).
Soil Composition
The basic unit of study: Soil
Profiles
A soil profile is a vertical cross-
TOPSOIL, section of a soil. It is divided into a
upper or A number of distinct layers, referred
horizon to as horizons.
The horizons are normally
SUBSOIL, designated by symbols and
middle or B letters.
horizon
The presence or absence of
particular horizons allows
pedologists (soil scientists) to
PARENT classify the soil.
MATERIAL,
lower or C In addition, the organic or O
horizon horizon can form above the mineral
soil- commonly in forested areas,
This diagram shows resulting from the dead plant and
simplified soil horizons
animal remains.
 Soil Forming Processes
Soils are complex and dynamic systems, in which many processes
are taking place.
Decomposition
Weathering and Humification

Capillary SOIL Leaching

action PROCESSES

Illuviation

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 Weathering

This refers to the

breakdown and
decomposition of rocks
and minerals by factors
including air, water, sun
and frost.

Physical weathering involves continual breakdown or

rocks into smaller and smaller particles.

Chemical weathering involves alteration of the chemical

composition of rock minerals.
Decomposition and Humification
Decomposition is the breakdown of plant derived material into its
simpler organic constituents. This is accomplished by enzymes,
earthworms, mites and other organisms.
Humification is the breakdown of plant remains-
leading to the formation of different types of humus. It
is probably the most important
biological process taking place in soils.
 Leaching

Wherever rainfall exceeds

evaporation and there is free
downward movement of water
through the soil pore system, soluble
A soil with small soil peds or crumbs and . minerals are leached or removed
high porosity leading to free drainage from the soil profile.
and active leaching
 Capillary action

Where evaporation exceeds

precipitation, moisture moves upwards
within the soil profile by capillary
action. It is therefore in the reverse
direction to leaching.

.
 Soil Forming Factors
Soils develop as a result of the interplay of 5 factors; Parent
material, climate, organisms, relief and time.

Parent material

Time
SOIL Climate
FORMING
FACTORS

Relief (landforms an Organisms: vegetation

d topography) , fauna and soil biota

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Parent Material
This is the material from which the soil has
developed and can vary from solid rock to
deposits like alluvium and boulder clay. It
has been defined as ‘the initial state of the
soil system’.
Jenny H (1941) Factors of soil formation. McGraw-Hill Book Co Inc pp281.

The parent material can influence the soil in

a number of ways:
• colour
• texture
• structure
• mineral composition
• permeability/drainage
This soil has developed on Old Red Sandstone
and so has derived its distinctive colour from
its parent material.
Climate
This is probably the most important
factor (soils produced from the same
parent material under different climates
contrast). Climate governs the rate and
type of soil formation and is also the
main determinant of vegetation
distribution.
Two major components; moisture
(precipitation) and temperature,
influencing evaporation. When
precipitation exceeds evaporation,
leaching of the soil will occur.
Temperature determines the rate of
reactions; chemical and biological decay
and so has an influence on weathering
and humification.
Organisms : vegetation, fauna
and soil microbes
Organisms influencing soil development range
form microscopic bacteria to large animals
including man. Micro organisms such as bacteria
and fungi assist in the decomposition of plant litter.
This litter is mixed into the soil by macro organisms
(soil animals) such as worms and beetles.
Soil horizons are less distinct when there is much
soil organism activity.
Relief (landforms and topography)
Relief is not static; it is a dynamic system (its study is called geomorphology).
Relief influences soil formation in several ways:
• It influences soil profile thickness i.e. as angle of slope increases so
does the erosion hazard
• it has an effect on climate which is also a soil forming factor
• gradient affects run-off, percolation and mass movement
• it influences aspect which creates microclimatic conditions

In this photograph soils

are thin on the glacially
eroded rock outcrops
but are much deeper
on the raised beach
deposits in the
foreground.
 Time
Soils develop very slowly.

Young soils retain many of the

characteristics of the parent material.
Recent soil
Over time they acquire other features
resulting from the addition of organic
matter and the activity of organisms.

An important feature of soils is that

Buried soil
they pass through a number of stages
as they develop, resulting in a deep
profile with many well differentiated
horizons

This soil profile shows a recent soil in

Culbin Forest which has formed on
sand overlying an ancient buried profile
 “A Question of Soil Formation”

The nine number question board which follows is adapted

from a template made available by :

www.sln.org.uk/geography

Click on a number to link to a question

Click the back button to link back to the question board

“A Question of Soil Formation”

12 3
456
7 8 9 Use ‘end show’
command to exit
presentation
 1

What factors might contribute to the visible

differences between these two soils?
 2

What type of humus is most likely to

develop in this environment?
 3

How do soil biota such as the earthworm

above assist in the formation of soils?
4

What indicates that

the lower part of this
soil is poorly drained
and lacks aeration?
 5

What process is
producing this layer
in this soil?
6

What is a vertical
cross section through
a soil called?

What name is given to

the layers in a soil
cross section?
 7

Explain how the relief shown in this

photograph may affect soil formation.
 8

Why is leaching of the soil likely to be

occurring in this part of north west Scotland?
 9
A
Which layer in this
soil is eluviated?
B

Which layer in this

soil is illuviated?