CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
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CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
• The capacitance C between two conductive plates separated by an
insulating material of dielectric constant (ε), of depth (d), and the
common area of the plates is A is:
𝜀𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
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If ε, A, or d is changed, then the capacitance between the two conductive
materials will be changed
• This type of transducers uses the physical quantity to change the
dielectric material (ε), area of the conductive materials (A), or their
separation distance (d)
• Since these transducers require an external power supply to convert
the change of the capacitance to an electrical signal, they are passive
transducers
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Transducers using change in distance between plates
• Useful for measuring extremely small displacement
• The capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance between plates
• The overall response of the transducer is not linear
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Transducers using change in distance between plates…..
Sensitivity;
𝜕𝐶 𝜀𝐴
𝑆= =− 2
𝜕𝑥 𝑥
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Transducers Using change in area of plates
• Measures moderate to large • For parallel plate capacitor;
displacements (from 1 mm to
several cm) 𝜀 𝐴 𝜀 𝑥𝑤
𝐶= =
𝑑 𝑑
Sensitivity,
; F/m
x = length of overlapping part of plates
w = width of overlapping part of plates
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Transducers Using change in area of plates…..
For cylindrical capacitor;
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Transducers Using change in area of plates…..
2 𝜋𝜀 𝑥
𝐶=
𝑙𝑛
𝐷2
𝐷1 ( )
x = length of overlapping part of cylinders
D2 = inner diameter of outer cylindrical electrode
D1 = outer diameter of inner cylindrical electrode
Sensitivity:
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Transducers Using change in area of plates….
• The basic principle of change in area can also be used for rotational
measurement
• One plate is fixed and the other is movable
• The angular displacement to be measured is applied to the movable plate
2
Capacitance at angle θ; 𝜀𝜃 𝑟
¿
2𝑑
Sensitivity,
2
𝜕𝐶 𝜀 𝑟
𝑆= =
𝜕 𝜃 2𝑑
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Transducers Based on Differential Arrangement
• Let C1 and C2 be the capacitances of the two plates that are fixed
• Plate M is midway between the two plates
• An alternating voltage E is applied across the plates P1 and P2 and the
potential difference is measured
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Transducers Based on Differential Arrangement
Voltage across C1 and C2
𝐶2 𝐸
𝐸1 =𝐸 =
𝐶 1+ 𝐶 2 2
𝐶1 𝐸
𝐸 2=𝐸 =
𝐶 1+ 𝐶 2 2
Differential output when the movable plate is midway:
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Transducers Based on Differential Arrangement
• Let the movable plate be moved up due to displacement x
• This results to different values of C1 and C2 resulting in a differential
voltage output
𝜀𝐴 𝜀𝐴
𝐶 1= and 𝐶2 =
𝑑−𝑥 𝑑+ 𝑥
𝐶2 𝑑−𝑥 𝐶1 𝑑+𝑥
𝐸1 =𝐸 = 𝐸 and 𝐸 2=𝐸 = 𝐸
𝐶 1+ 𝐶 2 2𝑑 𝐶 1+ 𝐶 2 2𝑑
Then the differential output:
-
⸫ The output voltage varies linearly with displacement
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Transducers Based on Differential Arrangement
Sensitivity:
∆𝐸 𝐸
𝑆= =
𝑥 𝑑
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Variation of Dielectric Constant for Displacement Measurement
• Here the capacitance varies with the change in dielectric constant
Top plate
Initial capacitance: 𝑤 𝑙1 𝑤 𝑙2 𝑤
𝐶 =𝜀 𝑜 + 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 =𝜀 𝑜 ( 𝑙1 + 𝜀𝑟 𝑙2 )
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
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Variation of Dielectric Constant for Displacement Measurement
Let the dielectric be moved through distance x
• Capacitance changes from C to C+∆C
𝜀𝑜 𝑤 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑤
𝐶 + ∆ 𝐶= ( 𝑙1 − 𝑥 ) + (𝑙2 + 𝑥)
𝑑 𝑑
𝜀𝑜 𝑤 𝑥
∆ 𝐶= ( 𝜀𝑟 − 1 )
𝑑
⸫ Change in capacitance is proportional to displacement
• Hence variation of dielectric constant can be used for displacement
measurement
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Transducers using Variation of Dielectric Constant
• Variation of Dielectric constant for Measurement of Liquid Level
Fig. Capacitive transducer for measurement of level of a non-conducting liquid
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Transducers using Variation of Dielectric Constant
• Variation of Dielectric constant for Measurement of Liquid Level
The value of capacitance for this capacitor is,
……(2)
Where = height of liquid ; m,
= height of cylinder above liquid ; m,
= relative permittivity of liquid ; m,
= relative permittivity of vapour above liquid,
= inside radius of outer cylinder ; m,
= outside radius of inner cylinder ; m,
= permittivity of free space ; F/m.
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Transducers using Variation of Dielectric Constant
• Variation of Dielectric constant for Measurement of Liquid Level
• Relationship 2 is based upon the assumption
Now and
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Advantages of Capacitive Transducers
i. They require extremely small forces to operate them and hence are
very useful for use in small systems
ii. They are extremely sensitive
iii. They have a good frequency response. This response is as high as 50
kHz and hence they are very useful for dynamic studies
iv. They have a high input impedance and therefore the loading effects
are minimum
v. The capacitive transducers can be used for applications where stray
magnetic fields render the inductive transducers useless
vi. The force requirements of capacitive transducers is very small and
therefore they require small power to operate them
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Disadvantages of Capacitive Transducers
i. The metallic parts of the capacitive transducers must be insulated from
each other also in order to reduce the effects of stray capacitances, the
frames must be earthed
ii. The capacitive transducers show non-linear behavior many a times on
account of edge effects. Therefore guard rings must be used to eliminate
this effect
iii. The output impedance of capacitive transducers tends to be high on
account to their small capacitance value. This leads to loading effects
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Uses of Capacitive Transducers
i. Capacitive transducers can be used for measurement of both linear
and angular displacements
ii. Capacitive transducers can be used for the measurement of force
and pressure. The force and pressure to be measured are first
converted to displacement which causes a change of capacitance
iii. Capacitive transducers can also be used directly as pressure
transducers in all those cases where the dielectric constant of a
medium changes with pressure
iv. Capacitive transducers are used for measurement of humidity in
gases since the dielectric constant of gases changes with change in
humidity thereby producing a change in capacitance
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Example.
A capacitive transducer uses two quartz diaphragms of area 750
mm2 separated by a distance of 3.5 mm. A pressure of 900 kN/m2
when applied to the top diaphragm produces a deflection of 0.6
mm. The capacitance is 370 pF when no pressure is applied to
the diaphragms. Find the value of capacitance after the
application of a pressure of 900 kN/m2.
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Solution:
and
Or ⸫
But and
⸫ Value of capacitance after application of pressure
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PIEZO ELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
• The Piezoelectric effect, is the ability of certain materials to generate an
AC voltage when subjected to mechanical stress or vibration, or to
vibrate when subjected to an AC voltage, or both
• The most common Piezo-Electric material used is Quartz (Crystal)
• The piezoelectric transducer is used for the measurement of force,
pressure, very small displacement, vibrations and sound waves.
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Working
• When any pressure or force exerted on the crystal, it converts it into
proportional output electrical signal
• It is also known as inverse transducer due to its reverse inherent
characteristics
• If any electrical signal is supplied to crystal, it converts it into some
physical movement.
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• The piezo-electric effect is direction sensitive. A tensile force produces a voltage of
one polarity while a compressive force produces a voltage of opposite polarity
• A piezo-electric crystal is shown in Fig. a.
Fig: (a) Piezoelectric crystal used for force measurement
(b) Axis numbering system for the crystal
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• The magnitude and polarity of the induced surface charges are proportional to the
magnitude and direction of the applied force F
• The polarity of induced charges depends upon the direction of applied force
Charge ...(3)
where d = charge sensitivity of the crystal; C/N: (it is constant for a given crystal) and
F = applied force, N,
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• The force F causes a change in thickness of the crystal
⸫ …(4)
Where A = area of crystal; m2, t = thickness of crystal; m, and E = Young’s modulus, N/m2
Young’s modulus …(5)
Area where = width of crystal; m, and = length of crystal; m
⸫ From Eqns. 3 and 4 charge …(6)
The charge at the electrodes gives rise to an output voltage Eo
Voltage …(7)
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Where = capacitance between electrodes; F
…(8)
From Eqns. 3, 7, 8,
…(9)
But
⸫ …(10)
Where ‘’ is the voltage sensitivity of the crystal. It is constant for a given crystal cut. It’s
units are
Now …(11)
But = electric field strength, V/m, let
⸫ …(12)
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• Therefore, crystal voltage sensitivity, g, can be defined as the ratio of the electric
field intensity to pressure (or stress)
charge sensitivity …(13)
Properties of Barium Titanate and Quartz
Material Voltage Sensitivity, g Permittivity, F/m Charge Sensitivity, d
Vm/N pC/N
Barium titanate 12 x 10-3 12.5 x 10-9 150
Quartz 50 x 10-3 40.6 x 10-12 2
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Modes of Operation of Piezo-electric Crystals
• The piezo-electric crystals are used in many modes.
• These modes are:
• (i) Thickness shear, (ii) Face shear, (iii) Thickness expansion and (iv) Transverse
expansion
Modes of operation of piezo-electric crystals
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Properties of Piezo-electric Crystals
• The desirable properties of piezo-electric materials are stability, high output
insensitivity to temperature and humidity and the ability to be formed into most
desirable shape.
• Quartz is the most stable piezo-electric material. However, its output is quite small.
• On the other hand, Rochelle salt provides the highest output but it can be worked
over a limited humidity range and has to be protected against moisture.
• The highest temperature is limited to 45°C.
• Barium titanate has the advantage that it can be formed into a variety of shapes and
sizes since it is polycrystalline.
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• It has also a higher dielectric constant. Natural crystals possess the advantages that
they have higher mechanical and thermal stability, can withstand higher stresses,
have low leakage (their volume resistivity is about 1016 Ω-m) and have a good
frequency response
• The synthetic materials, in general, have a higher voltage sensitivity
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Equivalent Circuit of Piezo-electric Transducers
• The basic equivalent circuit of a piezoelectric transducer is shown in Fig. (a). The
source is a charge generator
The value of the charge is
• The charge generated is across the capacitance, Cp , of the crystal and its leakage
resistance Rp
Equivalent circuits of piezo-electric transducers
• The charge generator can be replaced by an equivalent voltage source having a
voltage of in series with a capacitance and resistance as shown in Fig. (b)
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Advantages
• Very high frequency response
• Self-generating, so no need of external source
• Simple to use as they have small dimensions and large measuring range
Disadvantages
• The piezoelectric transducer is used for dynamic measurement only
• It has high temperature sensitivity
• Some crystals are water soluble and get dissolve in high humid
environment
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Applications
• Due to its excellent frequency response, it is normally used as an
accelerometer, where the output is in the order of (1-30) mV per
gravity of acceleration
• The device is usually designed for use as a pre-tensional bolt so that
both tensional and compression force measurements can be made
• It can be used for measuring force, pressure and displacement in
terms of voltage
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Example.
A quartz piezo-electric crystal having a thickness of 2 mm and voltage sensitivity of
0.055 Vm/N is subjected to a pressure of 1.5 MN/m2. Calculate the voltage output. If
the permittivity of quartz is 40.6 x 10-12 F/m, calculate its charge sensitivity.
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Solution:
voltage output
Charge sensitivity
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