Relations

Relations
•If we want to describe a relationship between elements of two sets A
and B, we can use ordered pairs.
•An ordered pair is commonly known as a point, has two components
which are the x and y coordinates with their first element taken from
set A and their second element taken from set B.
•The ordering of the two components is important
•This is an example of an ordered pair.
 Cartesian Product:
Let A and B be two sets, then the set of all order pairs (a, b), where
a A and b  B is called the Cartesian product or Cross product of A
and B.

The Cartesian product of two sets is defined as: AB = {(a, b) | a A

and b  B}

The Cartesian product of two sets is defined as: BA = {(b, a) | b B

and a  A}

Example: Let A={1,0,-1} and B={2,3} find out AB and BA
AB={ (1,2),(1,3),(0,2),(0,3),(-1,2),(-1,3)}
BA={ (2,1),(2,0),(2,-1),(3,1),(3,0),(3,-1)}

Therefore AB not equals to BA,

if the sets A and B are different. Symbolically AB ≠ BA
 Relation or Binary Relation:
• Let A and B be sets. A binary relation (or) relation R from
set A to set B is a subset of A´B.
• In other words, for a binary relation R we have
R Í A´B. We use the notation
– a R b to denote that (a, b)ÎR and
– a R b to denote that (a, b)ÏR.
• When (a, b) belongs to R, a is related to b by relation R.
Symbolically it is denoted by (a, b)ÎR
• When (a, b) does not belongs to R, a is not related to b by
relation R. Symbolically it is denoted by (a, b) ∉ R
Example:Let P be a set of people, C be a set of cars, and D be the
relation describing which person drives which car(s).
P = {Carl, Suzanne, Peter, Carla},
C = {Mercedes, BMW, tricycle}
D = {(Carl, Mercedes), (Suzanne, Mercedes), (Suzanne, BMW),
(Peter, tricycle)}

This means that Carl drives a Mercedes, Suzanne drives a Mercedes,

Suzanne drives a BMW, Peter drives a tricycle, and Carla does not
drive any of these vehicles.

A relation D is simply a collection of ordered pairs that are subset of

PC

Relations are used to store information in computer databases.

Problem-1: if A is a finite set with m elements and B is a finite set
with n elements . Find the number of relations from set A to set B

Sol:

The set of all relations from set A to set B is precisely the set of all
subsets of AB.
Therefore, the number of relations from A to B is equal to the
number of subsets of AB.

Since |A|=m and |B|=n,

we have |AB|=mn.
Therefore AB has 2mn number of subsets.
This implies that there are 2mn relations from set A to Set B.

For example, |A|=3 and , |B|=2 then

there exist 232 =26=64 relations from A to B.
Problem-2: Let A and B be finite sets with |B|=3. if there are 4096
relations from A to B. What is |A|?

Sol:

Suppose if |A|=m and |B|=n,

then there are 2mn relations from set A to Set B.

Therefore n=3 and 2mn =4096 2mn =4096

23m =4096

23m = 212
bases are equal on both sides , hence powers are also equal.
3m=12
m=4, hence |A|=4
Problem-3: Let A={1,2,3} and B={2,4,5} determine the
following.
• |AB|
• Number of relations from A to B.
• Number of binary relations on A.

Sol: We have |A|=m=3 and |B|=n=3

• |AB| = m*n=3*3=9
• Number of relations from A to B= 2mn= 233 =29=512
• Number of binary relations on A=2mm =2mm= 233 =29=512
 DOMAIN AND RANGE OF RELATION
Domain of Relation: The Domain of relation R is the set of
elements in P which are related to some elements in Q, or
it is the set of all first entries of the ordered pairs in R. It is
denoted by DOM (R).
Range of Relation: The range of relation R is the set of
elements in Q which are related to some element in P, or it
is the set of all second entries of the ordered pairs in R. It is
denoted by RAN (R).
Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
B = {a, b, c, d}
R = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, b), (2, c), (2, d)}.
Solution:
DOM (R) = {1, 2}
RAN (R) = {a, b, c, d}
 COMPLEMENT OF A RELATION
Consider a relation R from a set A to set B. The
complement of relation R denoted by Rc is a relation
from A to B such that
Rc = {(a, b): {a, b) ∉ R}.
Example:
Consider the relation R from X to Y
X = {1, 2, 3} Y = {8, 9}
R = {(1, 8) (2, 8) (1, 9) (3, 9)}
Find the complement relation of R.
Solution:
X x Y = {(1, 8), (2, 8), (3, 8), (1, 9), (2, 9), (3, 9)}
Now we find the complement relation R from X x Y
Rc = {(3, 8), (2, 9)}
 Representation of Relations
1. Relation as a Matrix: Let P = [a1,a2,a3,.......am] and
Q = [b1,b2,b3......bn] are finite sets, containing m and
n number of elements respectively. R is a relation
from P to Q. The relation R can be represented by m
x n matrix M = [Mij], defined as
Mij = 0 if (ai,bj) ∉ R
1 if (ai,bj )∈ R
Example
Let P = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Q = {a, b, c, d}
and R = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, b), (2, c), (2, d)}.
The matrix of relation R is shown as fig:
 Representation of Relations
2. Relation as a Directed Graph: There is another
way of picturing a relation R when R is a relation
from a finite set to itself.
Example
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
R = {(1, 2) (2, 2) (2, 4) (3, 2) (3, 4) (4, 1) (4, 3)}
 Representation of Relations
3. Relation as an Arrow Diagram: If P and Q are finite
sets and R is a relation from P to Q. Relation R can be
represented as an arrow diagram as follows.
Draw two ellipses for the sets P and Q. Write down the
elements of P and elements of Q column-wise in three
ellipses. Then draw an arrow from the first ellipse to
the second ellipse if a is related to b and a ∈ P and b
∈ Q.
P = {1, 2, 3, 4} Q = {a, b, c, d}
R = {(1, a), (2, a), (3, a), (1, b), (4, b), (4, c), (4, d)
 OPERATIONS ON RELATIONS
• The following operations can be performed on relations.
– Intersection
– Union
– Difference
– Complement
– Composition
– Converse
 OPERATIONS ON RELATIONS

1. Intersection:
Let A and B be two sets. Let R and S be the two relations from
set A to set B.
The intersection of two relations from set A to Set B is
represented by R ∩ S is defined as
R ∩ S={(a , b)  A x B / (a, b)  R and (a, b)  S } R
∩ S is the intersection of relations R and S
a (R ∩ S) b ≡ a R b  a S b
 OPERATIONS ON RELATIONS
2.Union:
Let A and B be two sets. Let R and S be the two
relations from set A to set B.
The union of two relations from set A to Set B is
represented by R U S is defined as
R U S={(a , b)  A x B / (a, b)  R or (a, b)  S }
R U S is the union of relations R and S
a (R U S) b ≡ a R b  a S b
 OPERATIONS ON RELATIONS

3.Difference:
Let A and B be two sets. Let R and S be the two relations from
set A to set B.
The difference of two relations from set A to Set B is
represented by R - S is defined as
R - S={(a , b)  A x B / (a, b)  R but (a, b)  S }
R - S is the difference of relations R and S
a (R - S) b ≡ a R b  a S b
 OPERATIONS ON RELATIONS
4. Complement:
Let A and B be two sets. Let R be a relation from set A to set B.
The complement of a relation R from set A to Set B is represented
by Rc is defined as
Rc ={(a , b)  AxB / (a, b) ∉ R}
Rc is complement of a relation R a (Rc)
b≡ aRb
 OPERATIONS ON RELATIONS

5.Composition:
Let A,B and C be three sets Let R be a relation from
set A to set B and S be a relation from set B to set C.
The composite or R and S is the relation consisting
of order pairs (a,c) where a  A and c  C and for
which there exist an element b  B such that (a,b)  R
and (b,c)  S.
The composition of R and S denoted by R o S
 OPERATIONS ON RELATIONS

6. Converse: Given a relation R from set X to Set Y, a

relation ~R from Y to X is called the converse of R.
The order pairs of ~R are obtained by interchanging the
members in of the order pairs of R.
for x  X and y  Y, then x R y ⇔ y ~R x
~R={(b, a) | (a, b)  R }
Example:
Let R= {(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)} then find out ~R.
Sol: R= {(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)}
~R={ (2,1),(3,1),(4,1)}
 OPERATIONS ON RELATIONS
Example-1:Let A={1,2,3} and B={ 1,2,3,4}.The relations
R={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)}and S={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)}can be
combined. Find out R U S, R ∩ S, R-S, S-R, Rc ,R o S and sc
Sol:
i. R U S={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)} U {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)}
={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,2),(3,3)}

ii. R ∩ S={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)} ∩{(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)}

={(1,1)}
iii. R-S = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)} - {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)}
={(2,2),(3,3)}
iv. S-R = {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)} –{(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)}
= {(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)}
 OPERATIONS ON RELATIONS
v. Rc = U-R = A x B –R
={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(3,1),(3,2),(3,3),
(3,4)}-{(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)}
= {(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,1),(2,3),(2,4),(3,1),(3,2),(3,4)}
vi. Sc = U-S = A x B –S
={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(3,1),(3,2),(3,3),(3,4)}-
{(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)}
= {(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(3,1),(3,2),(3,3),(3,4)}
vii. R o S={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)} o {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)}
={ (1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)}
viii. S o R= {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)} o {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)}
={ (1,1),(1,2),(1,3)}
 OPERATIONS ON RELATIONS
Example-2: Let the relations R={(1,1),(1,3),(3,2),(3,4),(4,2)}and
S={(2,1),(3,3),(3,4),(4,1)}. Find out R o S, S o R, R o R, S o S, (R o S) o
R, R o (S o R), R3 ,R2 ,R4 , R6.
Sol:
i. R o S= {(1,1),(1,3),(3,2),(3,4),(4,2)}o {(2,1),(3,3),(3,4),(4,1)}
={ (1,3),(1,4),(3,1),(4,1)}
ii. S o R={(2,1),(3,3),(3,4),(4,1)}o {(1,1),(1,3),(3,2),(3,4),(4,2)}
={ (2,1),(2,3),(3,2),(3,4),(4,1),(4,3)}
iii. R o R= {(1,1),(1,3),(3,2),(3,4),(4,2)} o {(1,1),(1,3),(3,2),(3,4),
(4,2)}
={ (1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(3,2)}
iv. S o S={(2,1),(3,3),(3,4),(4,1)}o {(2,1),(3,3),(3,4),(4,1)}
={ (3,3),(3,4),(3,1)}
v. (R o S) o R= { (1,3),(1,4),(3,1),(4,1)}o {(1,1),(1,3),(3,2),(3,4),
(4,2)}
 Properties of Relations
• A relation has mainly 6 properties.
1. Reflexive property
2. Irreflexive property
3. Symmetric property
4. Antisymmetric property
5. Asymmetric property
6. Transitive property
 Reflexive Property
A relation R on a set A is said to be reflexive if (a, a)R for every
element aA.

Example: Let us consider the set A={1, 2, 3, 4}. A relation R

defined on set A as R={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4),(1,3),(2,4)}
is relation R is reflexive or not?
Sol: relation R satisfy the reflexive property if (a, a)R for every
element a  A.
(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4)  R
 Irreflexive Property
A relation R on a set A is called irreflexive if (a, a)R for every
element a  A.

Example: Let us consider the set A={1, 2, 3, 4}.

A relation R defined on set A as R={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4),(1,3),(2,4)}
is relation R is reflexive or not?

Sol: relation R satisfy the reflexive property if (a, a)R for every
element a  A.
(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4)  R
from the above example, relation R does not satisfy Irreflexive
property,
if (a, a)R for every element a  A. (1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4)  R
 Symmetric Property
A relation R on a set A is called symmetric if whenever (a, b)R then
(b, a)R for all a, b  A.

Example: Let us consider the set A={1, 2, 3, 4}.

A relation R defined on set A as:R={(1,2),(2,1),(3,3),(4,2),(2,4)} is
relation R is symmetric or not?

Sol: if (1,2) R then (2,1) R if (4,2) R then (2,4) R

Hence relation R satisfy the Symmetric property
 Antisymmetric Property
A relation R on a set A is called antisymmetric if whenever (a, b)R
and (b, a)R, then a=b
(or)
A relation R on a set A is called antisymmetric if whenever (a, b)R
and (b, a) ∉ R, then a ≠ b

Example: Let us consider the set A={1, 2, 3, 4}. A relation R defined

on set A as: R={(1,2),(2,1),(3,3),(4,2),(2,4)} is relation R is
Antisymmetric or not?
Sol:
if whenever (1,2)  R and (2,1)  R, then 1 ≠ 2
if whenever (4,2)  R and (2,4)  R, then 4 ≠ 2
Hence relation R does not satisfy the Antisymmetric property
 Asymmetric Property
A relation R on a set A is called asymmetric if (a, b)R implies that
(b, a)R for all a, b  A.

Example: Let us consider the set A={1, 2, 3, 4}.

A relation R defined on set A as:R={(1,2),(2,1),(3,3),(4,2),(2,4)}
Is relation R is Asymmetric or not?

Sol: if (a, b)R implies that (b, a)R for all a, b  A.

if (1,2) R then (2,1) R
if (4,2) R then (2,4) R

Hence relation R does not satisfy the Asymmetric property

 Transitive Property
A relation R on a set A is called transitive if whenever (a, b)R and
(b, c)R, then (a, c)R for all a, b, c  A.

Example: Let us consider the set A={1, 2, 3, 4}.

A relation R defined on set A as: R={(1,2),(2,1),(3,3),(4,2),(2,4)}
Is relation R is transitive or not?

Sol: if whenever (a, b)R and (b, c)R, then (a, c)R for a, b, c  A.
if (1,2),(2,1)  R then (1,1) ∉ R,
If (4,2),(2,4)  R then (4,4) ∉ R,
If (1,2),(2,4)  R then (1,4) ∉ R,

Hence relation R does not satisfy the transitive property

Example-2: Let A={1,2,3,4} and
R={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1),(2,2),(3,4),(4,3),(3,3),(4,4)}.

Identify which properties are satisfied by the relation R

Reflexive: (a, a)  R for all a  A

(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4)  R
Hence relation R satisfies the reflexive property

Symmetric: if (a, b)  R then (b, a)  R for all a, b  A

if (1,2)  R then (2,1)  R
if (3,4)  R then (4,3)  R
Hence relation R satisfies the Symmetric property

Transitive: if (a, b)  R ,(b, c)  R then (a, c)  R for all a, b, c A

if (1,2),(2,1)  R then (1,1)  R,
if (2,1),(1,2)  R then (2,2) R,
if (4,3),(3,4)  R then (4,4) R.
Hence relation R satisfies the transitive property
Example-2:Let A={1,2,3,4} and
R={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1),(2,2),(3,4),(4,3),(3,3),(4,4)}.
Identify which properties are satisfied by the relation R

•Asymmetric: if (a, b)  R then (b, a) ∉R for all a, b  A

if (1,2)  R then (2,1)  R
if (3,4)  R then (4,3)  R
Hence relation R does not satisfy the Asymmetric property

•Antisymmetric: If whenever (a, b)R and (b, a)R, then a = b and

if whenever (a, b)R and (b, a) ∉ R, then a ≠ b

If whenever (1,2)  R and (2,1)  R, then 1 ≠ 2

if whenever (3,4)  R and (4,3)  R, then 3 ≠ 4
Hence relation R does not satisfy the Antisymmetric property
Example-3: Let A={1,2,3,4} and
R={(1,1),(1,2),(2,2),(2,4),(1,3),(3,3),(3,4),(1,4),(4,4)}.
Identify which properties are satisfied by the relation R

 Reflexive: (a, a)  R for all a  A

(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4)  R
Hence Relation R satisfies the reflexive property

 Symmetric: if (a, b)  R then (b, a)  R for all a, b  A

if (1,2)  R then (2,1) ∉ R
if (2,4)  R then (4,2) ∉ R
if (1,3)  R then (3,1) ∉ R
if (3,4)  R then (4,3) ∉ R
if (1,4)  R then (4,1) ∉ R
Hence Relation R does not satisfies symmetric property
Example-3: Let A={1,2,3,4} and
R={(1,1),(1,2),(2,2),(2,4),(1,3),(3,3),(3,4),(1,4),(4,4)}.
Identify which properties are satisfied by the relation R
Transitive: if (a, b)  R ,(b, c)  R then (a, c)  R for all a, b, cA
if (1,2),(2,2)  R then (1,2)  R,
if (1,2),(2,4)  R then (1,4) R,
if (1,3),(3,3)  R then (1,3) R.
if (1,3),(3,4)  R then (1,4) R.
if (3,4),(4,4)  R then (3,4) R.
if (1,4),(4,4)  R then (1,4) R.
Hence Relation R satisfies the transitive property
Asymmetric: if (a, b)  R then (b, a) R for all a, b  A
if(1,2)  R then (2,1) ∉ R
if (2,4)  R then (4,2) ∉ R
if (1,3)  R then (3,1) ∉ R
if (1,4)  R then (4,1) ∉ R
if (3,4)  R then (4,3) ∉ R
Hence Relation R satisfies the asymmetric property
Example-3: Let A={1,2,3,4} and
R={(1,1),(1,2),(2,2),(2,4),(1,3),(3,3),(3,4),(1,4),(4,4)}.
Identify which properties are satisfied by the relation R

Antisymmetric:
if a = b whenever (a, b)ÎR and (b, a)ÎR and
if a ≠ b whenever (a, b)ÎR and (b, a) ∉ R

if whenever (1,2) Î R and (2,1) ∉ R, then 1 ≠ 2

if whenever (3,4) Î R and (4,3) ∉ R, then 3 ≠ 4
if whenever (2,4) Î R and (4,2) ∉ R, then 2 ≠ 4
if whenever (1,3) Î R and (3,1) ∉ R, then 1 ≠ 3
if whenever (1,4) Î R and (4,1) ∉ R, then 1 ≠ 4

Hence Relation R satisfies the Antisymmetric property

 EQUIVALENCE RELATION
A Relation R on a set X is called an Equivalence relation on X if and
only if it satisfies the following properties.
• Reflexive property
• Symmetric Property
• Transitive property
Reflexive property
for any element ‘a’, (a, a)  R for all a  A
Symmetric property
for any two elements a and b,if (a, b)R then (b,a)R for all a, b
A
Transitive property
for any three elements ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’, if (a, b)R,(b, c) R then (a,
c)  R for all a, b, c A
Example-1:Let A={1,2,3,4}and R={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1),(2,2),(3,4),(4,3), (3,3),
(4,4)} be a relation on A. Verify that R is an Equivalence Relation.
Sol: To prove that R is a Equivalence relation on set A, it satisfies the
following properties.
Reflexive property, Symmetric Property and Transitive property
Reflexive: for any element ‘a’,(a, a)  R for all a  A
(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4)  R
Hence Relation R satisfies the reflexive property
Symmetric: for any two elements ‘a’ and ‘b’, if (a, b)  R then (b, a)  Rfor all
a, b  A
if (1,2)  R then(2,1)  R if (3,4)  R then (4,3)  R
Hence Relation R satisfies the Symmetric property
Transitive: for any three elements ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ if (a, b)  R ,(b, c)  R then (a,
c)  R for all a, b, c  A
if (1,2),(2,1)  R then (1,1)  R,
if (2,1),(1,2)  R then (2,2)  R,
if (3,4),(4,4)  R then (4,4) R.
Hence Relation R satisfies the transitive property
Example-2:Let A={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12} on this set define a relation R by
( x, y)  R if and only if x-y is a multiple of 5. Verify that R is an Equivalence
Relation.
Sol:To prove that R is a Equivalence relation on set A, it satisfies the following properties.
Reflexive property Symmetric Property Transitive property
Reflexive: for any element ‘a’, a  A, we have a-a is multiple of 5. Therefore , ( a, a)  R.
For example : for any element a=5,5  A then (5,5)  R i.e., 5-5 is a multiple of 5 i.e., 0 is a
multiple of 5(5*0=0)
Hence Relation R satisfies the reflexive property
Symmetric: for any two elements ‘a’ and ‘b’ where a, b  A.
let us consider a=10,b=5  A.
if ( a, b)  R then a-b is a multiple of 5 if (10,5)  R then 10-5 is a multiple of 5
if ( b, a)  R then b-a is a multiple of 5 if (5,10)  R then 5-10 is a multiple of 5
Hence Relation R satisfies the symmetric property
Transitive: for any three elements ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ where a, b and c  A
let us consider a=11,b=6 and c=1  A.
if (a , b)  R and (b , c)  R then (a , c)  R
(a-c) is a multiple of 5 =(a-b) is a multiple of 5 +(b-c) is a multiple of 5
Hence Relation R satisfies the transitive property
Therefore relation R is an Equivalence Relation
Example-2:Let A={1,2,3,4,5,6,7} on this set define a relation R
R = {( x, y)/x-y is a divisible by 3, x,y A}. Verify that R is an Equivalence
Relation.
Sol: To prove that R is a Equivalence relation on set A, it satisfies the following
properties. Reflexive property Symmetric Property Transitive property
Reflexive: for any element ‘a’, a  A, we have a-a is divisible by 3.
Therefore , ( a, a)  R.
For example : for any element a=5,5 A then (5,5)  R i.e., 5-5 is divisible by
3
Hence Relation
Symmetric: R satisfies
for any the reflexive
two elements ‘a’ andproperty
‘b’ where a, b  A.
let us consider a=1,b=4  A. if ( a, b)  R then a-b is a divisible by 3, if (1,4) 
R then 1-4 is divisible by 3, if ( b, a)  R then b-a is divisible by 3, if (4,1)  R
then 4-1 is divisible by 3 Hence Relation R satisfies the symmetric property
Transitive: for any three elements ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ where a, b and c  A
let us consider a=1 ,b=4 and c=7  A.
(a-b) is divisible by 3, (b-c) is divisible by 3, then (a-b) + (b-c) is also divisible
by 3
Hence Relation R satisfies the transitive property
Therefore relation R is an Equivalence Relation
Example-2:Let m be an integer m>=1, show that the relation
R = {( a, b)/a  b (mod m)} is an equivalence relation
 C O M PATA B I L I T Y RELATION
A Relation R on a set X is called an Compatibility relation on X if and
only if it satisfies the following properties.
• Reflexive property
• Symmetric Property
Reflexive property
for any element ‘a’, (a, a)  R for all a  A
Symmetric property
for any two elements a and b,if (a, b)R then (b,a)R for all a, b
A
Example-2:Let A={ball, bed, dog, let, egg} on this set define a relation R
R = {( x, y)/x,y A and x R y if x and y contains some common letters}.
Verify that R is an Compatibility Relation.
 PARTIAL ORDER RELATION
A Relation R on a set A is said to be a partial ordering relation or partial
order relation if and only if it satisfies the following properties.
Reflexive property:for any element ‘a’, (a, a)  R for all a  A
Antisymmetric property for any two elements a and b,
if a = b whenever (a, b)R and (b, a)R and
if a ≠ b whenever (a, b)R and (b, a) ∉R, where a, b  A
Transitive property for any three elements ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’
if (a, b)  R ,(b, c)  R then (a, c)  R for all a, b, c  A
Example:The following are the examples of partial ordering relation.
i. ≥ (greater than or equal to) is a partial ordering relation on the set of
integers.
ii. ⊆ (inclusion relation) is a partial ordering relation on the power set of
set s.
iii. Divisibility relation | is a partial ordering on the set of positive
integers.
 PARTIALLY ORDERED SET (or) POSET

• Partial ordering is represented by the symbol “≤”, this symbol does

not necessarily mean that “less than or equal to”.

• If ≤ is a partial ordering on P, then the order pair ( P, ≤ ) is called a

Partially Ordered Set or a POSET

• Let (P, ≤ ) be a poset. if for every x, y P we have either x ≤ y  y ≤

x, then ≤ is called simple ordering or linear ordering on P and (P,
≤ ) is called a totally ordered or simply ordered set or a chain.
Example-1: Show that “greater than or equal” relation ( ≥) is a partial
ordering on the set of integers.
Sol: To prove that ( ≥) is a partial ordering on the set of integers. it
satisfies the following properties.
Reflexive Antisymmetric Transitive
Reflexive property:for every integer a, a ≥ a, for all a  Z
Hence ≥ satisfies the Reflexive property.
Antisymmetric Property for any two integers a and b
if a ≥ b and b ≥ a then a=b , for all a, b  Z
Hence ≥ satisfies the Antisymmetric property
Transitive property for any three integers a, b and c
If a ≥ b and b ≥ c then a ≥ c , for all a, b ,c Z
Hence ≥ satisfies the Transitive property.
therefore it follows that ≥ is a partial ordering on the set of integers and
(Z, ≥) is a Poset.
Example-2: Show that “Inclusion” relation (⊆) is a partial
ordering on the power set of a set.
Sol: To prove that (⊆ ) is a partial ordering on the power set of a
set. it satisfies the following properties.
Reflexive,Antisymmetric,Transitive property
1.Reflexive property: for every set A,A ⊆ A whenever A is a subset
of S Hence ⊆ satisfies the Reflexive property.
2.Antisymmetric Property : for any two sets A and B
if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A then A = B, for all A, B  S
Hence ⊆ satisfies the Antisymmetric property
3. Transitive property for any three sets A, B and C if A⊆B and B ⊆
C then A ⊆ C, for all A, B,C ∈ S
Hence ⊆ satisfies the Transitive property.

Therefore it follows that ⊆ is a partial ordering on the power set of a

set and (P(S), ⊆ ) is a Poset.
 HASSE DIAGRAM
A partial ordering relation ≤ on a set P can be represented by means
of a diagram known as Hasse diagram of (P, ≤).
Steps for drawing Hasse diagram:
1. Start with a Directed Graph
2. Remove all self loops
3. Remove all transitive edges
i. Check if (a,b) and (b,c) are in partial ordering
ii. If yes, then remove the edge between vertices a and c
iii. If(c,d) also belongs to the partial order then remove the
edge(a,d) and so on
4. Draw the edges in upward direction
5. Remove all the arrows of directed graph
 HASSE DIAGRAM
Example-1: Let P={ 1,2,3,4 } and ≤ be the relation “less than or equal
to”. Draw the Hasse diagram.
Sol: Let R={( x, y)| x, y Î P and x less than or equal to y}
R={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,2,(2,3),(2,4),(3,3),(3,4),(4,4)}

2 4
1 3 3≤4
2≤3 3
1
2 2≤3
1≤2 2
1≤2 1≤2
1
1
Example-2: Let P={ 1,2,3,4 } and if R is a relation on the set A defined by x
R y if x divides y. Draw the Hasse diagram.
Sol: from the definition of R, we have
R={( x, y)| x, y  P and x divides y}
={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,2),(2,4),(3,3),(4,4)}

1 2
1 divides 2

1 4
2 divides 4

2 3
2 3
1 divides 2 1 divides 3 1 divides 3
1 1 divides 2
1
Example-3: Let P={ 2,3,6,12,24,36 } and R be the relation such that
x R y if x divides y, then the Hasse diagram is

12
2 3 6 6 divides 12

2 divides 6 6
3 divides 6 2 3 3 divides 6

2 3

24 36
24
12 divides 36 12 divides 24
12 divides 24
12
12
6 divides 12
6 divides 12
6 3 divides 6
2 divides 6 6
2 divides 6 3 divides 6
2 3
2 3
Example-4: Let P={ 1,2,3,4,6,12 } and if R is a relation on the set A defined by x
R y if x divides y. Prove that R is a partial order on P. Draw the Hasse diagram
for this relation.
Sol: from the definition of R, we note that R={( x,y)| x, y  P and x divides y}
R={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(1,6),(1,12),(2,2),(2,4),(2,6),(2,12),(3,3),(3,6),(3,12),
(4,4),(4,12),(6,6),(6,12),(12,12)}
Reflexive: Evidently, ( a, a)  R for all a  P
(1,1),(2,2),(3,),(4,4),(6,6),(12,12)  R Therefore relation R is Reflexive.
Antisymmetric: for all a, b  P, if a divides b and b divides a, then a=b. for all
a, b  P, if a divides b and b does not divides a, then a ≠ b Hence R is
Antisymmetric
R={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(1,6),(1,12),(2,2),(2,4),(2,6),(2,12),(3,3), (3,6),(3,12),
(4,4),(4,12),(6,6),(6,12),(12,12)}
Therefore R satisfies the Antisymmetric property
Transitive: for all a, b, c  P, if a divides b and b divides c, then a divides c
i.e., if ( a, b)  R and ( b, c)  R then ( a, c)  R
R={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(1,6),(1,12),(2,2),(2,4),(2,6),(2,12),(3,3), (3,6),(3,12),
(4,4),(4,12),(6,6),(6,12),(12,12)}
Therefore R satisfies the Transitive property.
Relation R satisfies Reflexive, Antisymmetric and Transitive properties on set P.
Hence relation R is partial order relation on set P
Hasse Diagram is:

2 2 3
1
1 divides 2 1 divides 2 1 divides 3
1 1

4 4 6
2 divides 4 2 divides 4 3 divides 6
2 3 2 divides 6
2 3
1 divides 2 1 divides 3 1 divides 2 1 divides 3
1
1

12
4 divides 12 6 divides 12

4 6

2 divides 4 3 divides 6
2 divides 6
2 3
1 divides 2 1 divides 3
1
Example-5: Let P={ 1,2,3,4,6,8,12} and R be the partial ordering relation on
set P such that x R y if x divides y. Draw the Hasse diagram.
Sol: from the definition of R, we note that R={( x, y)| x, y  P and x divides y}
R={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(1,6),(1,8),(1,12),(2,2),(2,4),(2,6),(2,8),
(2,12),(3,3),(3,6),(3,12),(4,4),(4,8),(4,12),(6,6),(6,12),(8,8),(12,12)}

8 12
4 divides
4 divides 8
12 6 divides 12

4 6
2 divides 4 3 divides 6

2 3

1 divides 2 1 divides 3
1
Example-6: Draw the Hasse diagram representing the
positive divisors of 36.
Sol: The set of all positive divisors of 36 is: D36={1,2,3,4,6,9,12,18,36}
The relation R of divisibility(a R b if and only if a divides b) is a partial
order on the set D36.
The relation R(divisibility) contains the following order pairs.
R={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,40,(1,6),(1,9),(1,12),(1,18),(1,36),(2,2)(2,4),(2,6),
(2,12),(2,18),(2,36),(3,3),(3,6),(3,9),(3,12),(3,18),(3,36),((4,4),4,12),
(4,36),(6,6),(6,12),(6,36),,(9,9),(9,18),(9,36),(12,12),(12,36),(18,18),
(18,36),(36,36)}
Relation R(divisibility) satisfies reflexive, Antisymmetric, Transitive
properties by observing the above order pairs. Hence, relation R is Partial
order relation on D36
 36
12 divides 36 18 divides 36

12 18
6 divides 12 9 divides 18
4 divides 12
6 divides 18
4 6 9
3 divides 6
2 divides 4 2 divides 6 3 divides 9
2 3

1 divides 2 1 divides 3
1
Example-7: Consider the partial order of divisibility on the set A.
Draw the Hasse diagram for theposet and determine whether the
poset is totally order or not.
i. A={ 1,2,3,5,6,10,15,30}
ii. A={ 2,4,8,16,32}

30 32

16
6 10 15

8
2 3 5
4

1
2

By examining the above Hasse diagrams, we find that the given relation is totally ordered in
case (ii), but is not totally ordered in case (i)
 TERMINOLOGY RELATED TO POSETS
Maximal member :Let (P, ≤) is a poset, an element aP is called a
maximal member of P, if there is no element b P such that a<b(a
strictly precedes b).
Minimal member :Let (P, ≤) is a poset, An element aP is called a
minimal member of P, if there is no element b P such that b<a(a
strictly precedes b).
Greatest member :Let (P, ≤) is a poset, if there exist an element
aP such that b ≤ a for all b P, then a is called the greatest
member of the poset.
Least member:Let (P, ≤) is a poset, if there exist an element aP
such that a ≤ b for all b P, then a is called the greatest member of
the poset.
 Example:

d e d c d d
b
b c
c c
a
a b a
a b

FIG-1 FIG-2 FIG-3 FIG-4

*Let Us Consider The Hasse Diagrams Of Four Posets, Given In The Above
Fig.
For FIG-1, a and b are minimal elements and d and e are the maximal elements
For FIG-2, a and b are minimal elements and d is the greatest element or
maximal elements. There is no least element.
For FIG-3, a is the least element or minimal element and c and d are the
maximal elements. There is no greatest element.
For FIG-4, a is the least element and d is the greatest element.
• A minimal member need not be unique. All those members which appear at
the lowest level of a Hasse diagram of a poset are minimal members.
• In the below Hasse diagram, it contains one maximal member and two
minimal members .