NETWORK-

LAYER
PROTOCOLS
INTERNET PROTOCOL
(IP)
 The network layer in version 4 is one main protocol and three auxiliary ones

 Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4), is responsible for

 Packetizing

 Forwarding

 Delivery of a packet at the network layer

 The Internet Control Message Protocol version 4 (ICMPv4) helps IPv4 to handle some errors that may
occur in the network-layer delivery

 The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is used to help IPv4 in multicasting

 The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to glue the network and data-link layers in mapping
network-layer addresses to link-layer addresses(MAC)
Position of IP and other network-
layer protocols in TCP/IP
protocol suite
IPv4 is a
connectionle
ss protocol
that uses
the
datagram
approach
Datagram
Format
The format of a packet in which the data coming from the upper layer or
other protocols are encapsulated

 Packets used by the IP are called datagrams

 A datagram is a variable-length pac ket c onsisting of two parts:

 header

 payload (data)

 The header is 20 to 60 bytes in length and contains information essential to

routing and
delivery

 It is customary in TCP/IP to show the header in 4-byte sections

Datagram
Format In IP datagram
totally 13 fields
and 12
(20bytes) fields
are mandatory

Total length of
the datagram
216 = 65535
Header(4 bits)
Version Number The 4-bit version number (VER) field defines the version of the IPv4 protocol,

has the value of 4 ------- 0100

 Header Length

 The 4-bit header length (HLEN) field defines the total length of the datagram header in 4-byte words

 The IPv4 datagram has a variable-length header

 When a device receives a datagram, it needs to know when the header stops and the data starts which
is
encapsulated in the packet

 To make the value of the header length (number of bytes) fit in a 4-bit header length, the total
length of the header is divided by 4 and the value is inserted in the field
 The receiver needs to multiply the value of this field by 4 to find the total length
Total Length(4
bits)
 This 16-bit field defines the total length (header plus data) of the IP datagram in bytes
 A 16-bit number can define a total length of up to 65,535
 The size of the datagram is normally much less than this
 This field helps the receiving device to know when the packet has completely arrived
 To find the length of the data coming from the upper layer, subtract the header length from the

total length
 The header length an be found by multiplying the value in the HLEN field by 4
 Length of data = total length − (HLEN) × 4
Service Type (differentiated services 8bits)
 Service Type
 In the original design of the IP header, this field was referred to as type of service (TOS)
 Defined how the datagram should be handled (DiffServ)
 The DS field contains two subfields: DSCP and CU. The DSCP (Differentiated Services Code Point) is a 6-bit
subfield that defines the per-hop behavior (PHB).
 The 2-bit CU (Currently Unused) subfield is not currently used
 Ensures
 Low loss , Throughput, Low latency, Ensured bandwidth
 reliability
Identification, Flags, and
Fragmentation Offset (16 +3+13 bits)
 These three fields are related to the fragmentation of the IP datagram

 When the size of the datagram is larger than the underlying network can carry
Time-to-live(8
bits)
 The time-to-live (TTL) field is used to control the maximum number of hops (routers) visited by the

datagram
 When a source host sends the datagram, it stores a number in this field
 This value is approximately two times the maximum number of routers between any two hosts
 Each router that processes the datagram decrements this number by one
 If this value is zero, the router discards the datagram.
Protocol (8
bits)
In TCP/IP, the data section of a packet, called the payload, carries the whole packet from another
protocol
 A datagram, can carry a packet belonging to any transport-layer protocol such as UDP , TCP and
a
packet from other protocols that directly use the service of the IP, such as some routing protocols or
some auxiliary protocols
 Unique 8-bit number which is inserted in the protocol field.

Multiplexing and demultiplexing using the value of the protocol field

Header
checksum(16)
 IP is not a reliable protocol; it does not check whether the payload carried by a datagram is
corrupted during the transmission
 IP puts the burden of error checking of the payload on the protocol that owns the payload, such
as UDP or TCP
The datagram header is added by IP, and its error-checking is the responsibility of IP
 Errors in the IP header can be a disaster. For example, if the destination IP address is corrupted
IP adds a header checksum field to check the header, but not the payload
As the value of some fields, such as TTL, which are related to fragmentation and options, may
change from router to router, the checksum needs to be recalculated at each router
Source and Destination
Addresses(32 bits each )
 These 32-bit source and destination address fields define the IP address of the source and
destination respectively

 The source host should know its IP address

 The destination IP address is either known by the protocol that uses the service of IP or
is provided by the DNS (Domain Name System, translates human readable domain names
(for
example, www.amazon.com) to machine readable IP addresses (for example, 192.0. 2.44)

 The value of these fields must remain unchanged during the time the IP datagram travels from
the source host to the destination host
Option
s  A datagram header can have up to 40 bytes of options
 Options can be used for network testing and debugging
 Option processing is required of the IP software
 Implementations must be able to handle options if they are present in the header
 The existence of options in a header creates burden on the datagram handling: some options can

be changed by routers, which forces each router to recalculate the header checksum
 There are one-byte and multi-byte options
Payload (0 to
40bytes)
 Payload, or data, is the main reason for creating a datagram

 Payload is the packet coming from other protocols that use the service of IP

 Payload is the content of the package; the header is only the information written on the package
Exampl
es
 An IPv4 packet has arrived with the first 8 bits as (01000010)2 The receiver discards the
packet. Why?

 In an IPv4 packet, the value of HLEN is (1000)2. How many bytes of options are being carried by
this packet?

 In an IPv4 packet, the value of HLEN is 5, and the value of the total length field is (0028)16. How
many bytes of data are being carried by this packet?

 An IPv4 packet has arrived with the first few hexadecimal digits as shown.
(45000028000100000102…)16. How many hops can this packet travel before being dropped? The
data belong to what upper-layer protocol?
An IPv4 packet has arrived with the first 8 bits
as (01000010)2 The receiver discards the
packet. Why?
 There is an error in this packet.

 The 4 leftmost bits (0100)2 show the version, which is correct.

 The next 4 bits (0010)2 show an invalid header length (2 × 4 = 8). The minimum number of bytes

in the header must be 20. The packet has been corrupted in transmission.
In an IPv4 packet, the value of HLEN is (1000)2. How many bytes of
options are being carried by this packet?

 The HLEN value is 8, which means the total number of bytes in the header is 8 × 4, or 32
bytes.

 The first 20 bytes are the base header, the next 12 bytes are the options.
In an IPv4 packet, the value of HLEN is 5, and the value of the total length field
is
(0028)16. How many bytes of data are being carried by this packet?

 The HLEN value is 5, which means the total number of bytes in the header is 5 × 4, or 20 bytes (no
options)
 The total length is (0028)16 or 40 bytes, which means the packet is carrying 20 bytes of data (40 − 20)
An IPv4 packet has arrived with the first few hexadecimal digits as shown.
(45000028000100000102…)16. How many hops can this packet travel before being
dropped? The data belong to what upper-layer protocol?

 To find the time-to-live field, we skip 8 bytes (16 hexadecimal digits). The time-to-live field is the

ninth byte, which is (01)16

 This means the packet can travel only one hop. The protocol field is the next byte (02)16, which

means that the upper-layer protocol is IGMP

Example of checksum calculation
in IPv4

 The header is divided into 16-bit

sections
 All the sections are added
 Sum is complemented after wrapping
the leftmost digit
 The result is inserted in the checksum
field
Fragmentati
on
 A datagram can travel through different networks
 The format and size of the received frame depend on the protocol used by the physical network
through which the frame has just traveled
For example, if a router connects a LAN to a WAN, it receives a frame in the LAN format and
sends a frame in the WAN format
 Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU)
 Each link-layer protocol has its own frame format
 One of the features of each format is the maximum size of the payload that can be
encapsulated
 The value for a LAN is normally 1500 bytes, but for a WAN it can be larger or smaller
 A datagram can be fragmented by the source host or any router in the path
 The fragmented datagram can travel through different routes
 Fields Related to
Fragmentation

Identification,
flags, and
fragmentation
offset.
Identification (16
bits)
 Use to identify fragments of same frame
The combination of the identification and source IP address uniquely define a datagram as it leaves
the source host
IP protocol uses a counter to label the datagrams
 The counter is initialized to a positive number. When the IP protocol sends a datagram, it copies
the current value of the counter to the identification field and increments the counter by one.
When a datagram is fragmented, the value in the identification field is copied into all fragments.
3-bit flags field Not Used
D
(Do not
fragment
M
(more
fragment
bit) bit)
 The leftmost bit is reserved (not used)

 The second bit (D bit) is called the do not fragment bit

 If its value is 1, the machine must not fragment the datagram.
 If it cannot pass the datagram through any available physical network, it discards the datagram and sends
an ICMP error message to the source host
 If its value is 0, the datagram can be fragmented if necessary

 Third bit (M bit) is called the more fragment bit

 If its value is 1, it means the datagram is not the last fragment; there are more fragments after this one
 If its value is 0, it means this is the last or only fragment
13-bit fragmentation offset field
 This bit shows the relative position of this fragment with respect to the whole datagram

 It is the offset of the data in the original datagram measured in units of 8 bytes
Fragmentati
on
Example
◦An IP router with a Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) of 500 bytes has received an IP packet of

size 3000 bytes (20B + 2980B). How many fragments will be generated. Write M, offset and total

length (TL)for all

 Exampl
e
An IP router with a Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) of 500 bytes has received an IP packet of
size 3000 bytes (20B + 2980B). How many fragments will be generated. Write M, offset and total
length (TL)for all
IP 3000B --- MTU 500B

 MTU 500B  20B +480B Therefore 2980/480 = 6.20 = 7

480/8 =60
P7 P6 P5 P4 P3 P2 P1
100+20 480+20 480+20 480+20 480+20 480+20 480+20

120 500 500 500 500 500 500 (TL)

0 1 1 1 1 1 1 (M)

360 300 240 180 120 60 0(offset)

Example
◦An IP router with a Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) of 200 bytes has received an IP packet of size 520 bytes with an
IP

header of length 20 bytes. How many fragments will be generated. Write M, offset and total length (TL)for all

◦Since MTU is 200 bytes and 20 bytes is header size so, maximum length of data = 180 bytes but it can be represented

in fragment offset since not divisible by 8 so, maximum length of data feasible = 176 bytes.

Number of fragments = (520/200) = 3

Header length = 5 (since scaling factor is 4 therefore, 20/4 = 5)

◦ 176/8 =22
P3 P2 P1
20+148 20+176 20+176
168 196 196
0 1 1(M)
44 22 0
ICMPv
4
 The ICMPv4 is a message-oriented protocol

 ICMPv4 Internet Control Message Protocol version 4 is a Network layer protocol and it report the error to

the source if any problem arises while delivering the datagram from the source host to the destination host

 The messages are first encapsulated inside IP datagrams before going to the lower layer

 When an IP datagram encapsulates an ICMP message, the value of the protocol field in the IP datagram is

set to 1 to indicate that the IP payroll is an ICMP message

ICMP
MESSAGES
 ICMP messages are divided into two broad categories:

 Error-reporting messages

 Query messages
Error-reporting messages
The error-reporting messages report problems that a router or a host (destination) may
encounter when it processes an IP packet
The query messages occur in pairs, help a host or a network manager get specific information
from a router or another host
 For example
 Nodes can discover their neighbors
Hosts can discover and learn about routers on their network
General format of ICMP
messages  An ICMP message has an 8-
byte header and a variable-size
data section
 First 4 bytes are common to all

 ICMP does not correct errors

 ICMP uses the source IP address to

send
the error message to the source

 In error messages, the data section carries

information for finding the original
packet that had the error

 In query messages, the data section

carries extra information based on the
type of query
 Important points about ICMP error
messages
 No ICMP error message will be generated

 In response to a datagram carrying an ICMP error message

 For a fragmented datagram that is not the first fragment

 For a datagram having a multicast address

 For a datagram having a special address such as 127.0.0.0 or 0.0.0.0. (LOOP BACK and 0.0. 0.0 is used on servers to
designate a

service may bind to all network interfaces. It tells a server to "listen" for and accept connections from any
IP address)
All error messages contain a data section that includes the IP header of the original datagram + the first 8 bytes of data in
that datagram

 First 8 bytes provide information about the port numbers (UDP and TCP) and sequence number (TCP)
 This information is needed so the source can inform the protocols (TCP or UDP) about the error
Contents of data field for the
error messages
Types of Error messages
 Destination-unreachable message is sent when a router cannot route or a
host cannot transfer a datagram, the datagram is rejected, and the router or
the host share this back to the source host type 3 code(1-15)
 Source Quench informs the sender that the network has encountered
congestion and the datagram has been dropped; the source needs to slow
down sending more datagrams. Flow/congestion control type 4. code(0)
 Time exceeded message is generated in two cases−
 Whenever a router gets a datagram with a time-to-live value of zero, it
discards the datagram and shares a time exceeded message to the
original source
 When the last destination does not obtain all of the fragments in a set
time, it removes the received fragments and sends a time-exceeded
message to the original source type 11 codes(0 and 1)
Parameter Problem Mssage can be sent when either there is a problem in the
header of a datagram (code 0) or some options are missing or cannot be
interpreted type 12 (code 1)
The redirection message is used when the source uses a wrong router to send
out its message. The router redirects the message to the appropriate router, but
informs the source that it needs to change its default router in the future. The IP
address of the default router is sent in the message (type 5 code 0 and 3)
 Query
Messages
 Query messages are used to probe or test the
 liveliness of hosts or routers in the Internet

 Find the one-way or the round-trip time for an IP datagram between two devices

 Find out whether the clocks in two devices are synchronized

 Query messages come in pairs: request and reply

 A query message needs to be encapsulated in a datagram, as a carrier

 The echo request (type 8) and the echo reply (type 0) pair of messages are used by a host or a router to test the

liveliness of another host or router.

 The timestamp request (type 13) and the timestamp reply (type 14) pair of messages are used to find the round-trip

time between two devices or to check whether the clocks in two devices are synchronized
 The timestamp request message sends a 32-bit number, defines the time the message is sent.

 The timestamp reply resends that number, but also includes two new 32-bit numbers representing the time the request was
received and the time the response was sent
If all timestamps represent Universal time, the sender can calculate the one-way and round-trip time
Debugging
Tools
 Several tools that can be used in the Internet for debugging

 We can determine the viability (to work successfully) of a host or router

 We can trace the route of a packet

 Two tools that use ICMP for debugging:

 Ping

 Traceroute
Ping(Packet Internet or Inter-
Network Groper)
 Use the ping program to find if a host is alive and responding

 Example:

 The source host sends ICMP echo-request messages; the destination, if alive, responds with ICMP echo-reply

messages
 The ping program sets the identifier field in the echo-request and echo-reply message and starts the sequence

number from 0; this number is incremented by 1 each time a new message is sent(total 4)

 Note that ping can calculate the round-trip time

 It inserts the sending time in the data section of the message

 When the packet arrives, it subtracts the arrival time from the departure time to get the round-trip time
(RTT)
Ping
Ipconfig/all
Traceroute or
Tracert
 The traceroute program in UNIX or tracert in Windows can be used to

 Traceroute is a network diagnostic tool used to track in real-time the pathway taken by a packet on an IP

network from source to destination, reporting the IP addresses of all the routers it pinged in between

 Traceroute also records the time taken for each hop the packet makes during its route to the destination.

 It can find the IP addresses of all the routers that are visited along the path

 The program is usually set to check for the maximum of 30 hops (routers) to be visited

 The number of hops in the Internet is normally less than this

Tracerout
e
 The ping program gets help from two query messages

 the traceroute program gets help from two error-reporting messages:

 time-exceeded

 destination-unreachable.

 The traceroute application program is encapsulated in a UDP user datagram

 If there are n routers in the path, the traceroute program sends (n + 1) messages

The first n messages are discarded by the n routers, one by each router the last message is

discarded by the destination host.

The traceroute client program uses the (n + 1) ICMP error-reporting messages received to find

the path between the routers.

Use of ICMPv4 in
traceroute  The first traceroute message is sent with time-to-live
(TTL) value set to 1
 The message is discarded at the first router and a time-
exceeded ICMP error message is sent, from which the
traceroute program can find the IP address of the first
router
 Similarly for 2nd and 3rd
 The fourth message reaches the destination host
 This host is also dropped as host cannot find the port
number specified in the UDP user datagram
 ICMP sends a different message, the destination-
unreachable message with code 3 to show the port number
is not found.
 After receiving this different ICMP message, the
traceroute program knows that the final destination is
reached.
 It uses the information in the received message to
find the
IP address and the name of the final destination.
Traceroute (Unix)
 The traceroute program also sets a timer to find the round-trip time for each router and the

destination
 traceroute programs send three messages to each device, with the same TTL value, to be able to find

a better estimate for the round-trip time

 traceroute uses three probes for each device and gets three RTTs
Tracert(Windows
)
 The first column corresponds to the hop count. The 5th column represents the address of that hop

and 2nd to 4th time in milliseconds round trip time (RRT) for each intermediate hop
 traceroute command sends three packets to each hop and each of the time refers to RRT
Difference between Ping And Tracert
◦ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=up3bcBLZS74
Example of checksum
calculation
 ICMP the checksum is calculated over

the entire message (header and data)

 Checksum calculation for a simple echo-

request message
 The message is divided into 16-bit
(2-
byte) words
 The words are added and the sum
is
complemented
 Sender put this value in the checksum

field
MOBILE
IP
 Mobile and personal computers become increasingly popular, we need to think about mobile IP
 The extension of IP protocol that allows mobile computers to be connected to the Internet at any
location where the connections possible

Addressing
 The main problem that must be solved in providing mobile communication using the IP protocol is
addressing
Stationary Hosts and Mobile
Hosts
Stationary Hosts
 The original IP addressing was based on the assumption that a host is stationary, attached to one
specific network
 A router uses an IP address to route an IP datagram
 An IP address has two parts: a prefix and a suffix. The prefix associates a host with a network.
 This implies that a host in the Internet does not have an address that it can carry with itself
from
one place to another
 The address is valid only when the host is attached to the network. If the network changes, the
address is no longer valid
Mobile Hosts
 When a host moves from one network to another, the IP addressing structure needs to be
modified.
 Solutions
1. Changing the Address

 One simple solution is to let the mobile host change its address as it goes to the new network

 The host can use DHCP to obtain a new address to associate it with the new network

 Drawbacks
 The configuration files would need to be changed
 Each time the computer moves from one network to another, it must be rebooted.
 The DNS tables need to be revised so that every other host in the Internet is aware of the change
 If the host roams from one network to another during a transmission, the data exchange will be interrupted
because the ports and IP addresses of the client and the server must remain constant for the duration of the
connection
Solutions
◦ 2. Two Addresses
 Use of two addresses home address and care-of address

 The host has its original address, called the home address and a temporary address, called the
care-of address

 The home address is permanent; it associates the host with its home network, the network that is
the permanent home of the host

 The care-of address is temporary. When a host moves from one network to another, the care-of
address changes; it is associated with the foreign network, the network to which the host moves
Home address and care-of address
 Mobile IP has two addresses for a mobile host: one home address and
one care-of address
 The home address is permanent; the care-of address changes as the
mobile host moves from one network to another
 Agent
s
 To make the change of address transparent to the rest of the Internet requires a

 Home agent and a foreign agent.

 Home agent relative to the home network and a foreign agent relative to the foreign network

 Home Agent

 The home agent is usually a router attached to the home network of the mobile host.

 The home agent acts on behalf of the mobile host when a remote host sends a

packet to the mobile host

 The home agent receives the packet and sends it to the foreign agent

 Foreign Agent

 The foreign agent is usually a router attached to the foreign network

 The foreign agent receives and delivers packets sent by the home agent to the mobile
host
 Collocated care-of
address
 When the mobile host acts as a foreign agent, the care-of address is called a
collocated care-of

address

 The advantage of using a collocated care-of address is that the mobile host can
move to any

network without worrying about the availability of a foreign agent

 The disadvantage is that the mobile host needs extra software to act as its own
foreign agent
Three
Phases
To communicate with a remote

host, a mobile host goes

through three phases:

 Agent discovery

 Registration

 Data transfer
Agent
Discovery
 Agent discovery, consists of two sub phases

 A mobile host must discover /learn the address of a home agent before it leaves its home network

 A mobile host must discover a foreign agent after it has moved to a foreign network

 The discovery involves two types of messages:

 Advertisement

 Solicitation
Agent
Advertisement
When a router advertises its presence on a network using an ICMP router

advertisement, it can append an agent advertisement to the packet if it acts

as an agent

 Agent advertisement is piggybacked to the router

advertisement packet
 ❑ Type The 8-bit type field is set to 16
Agent advertisement ❑Length The 8-bit length field defines the total
length of the extension message
❑ Sequence number
 The 16-bit sequence number field holds the
message
number.
 The recipient can use the sequence number to
determine if a message is lost
❑ Lifetime

 The lifetime field defines the number of

CODE seconds that the agent will accept requests
bits  If the value is a string of 1s, the lifetime is
infinite
❑ Code The code field is an 8-bit flag in which each
bit is set (1)
or unset (0).
 Care-of Addresses
 This field contains a list of addresses available
for use as care of Addresses
 The mobile host can choose one of these
addresses
 Agent
Solicitation
 When a mobile host has moved to a new network and has not received agent advertisements it can

initiate an agent solicitation

 It can use the ICMP solicitation message to inform an agent that it needs assistance

Mobile IP does not use a new packet type for agent solicitation; it uses the router solicitation packet

of ICMP
 Registratio
 n second phase in mobile communication is registration
The
 After a mobile host has moved to a foreign network and discovered the foreign agent, it must register
 There are four aspects of registration:
 The mobile host must register itself with the foreign agent
 The mobile host must register itself with its home agent. This is normally done by the foreign agent on behalf
of the mobile host
The mobile host must renew registration if it has expired
The mobile host must cancel its registration (deregistration) when it returns home
 Registratio
nand Reply
Request
 To register with the foreign agent and the home agent, the mobile host uses a registration request and
foreign agent reply
Registration Request
 When registering using a foreign agent, the registration process takes the following steps
 The mobile node sends a registration request to the foreign agent to begin the registration process
 The foreign agent processes the registration request and then relays it to the home agent

Registration Reply
 A registration reply is sent from the home agent to the foreign agent and then relayed to the mobile
host
 The reply confirms or denies the registration request
“A registration request or reply is sent by UDP using the well-known port 434.”
Registration request  Type The 8-bit type field defines the type of message.
format For a
request message the value of this field is 1.
❑ Flag The 8-bit flag field defines forwarding information.
The value
of each bit can be set or unset
 Lifetime. This field defines the number of seconds the
registration is valid. If the field is a string of 0s, the
request message is asking for deregistration. If the

Registration request flag field field is a string of 1s, the lifetime is infinite.
bits ❑ Home address. This field contains the permanent (first)
address of
the mobile host.
❑ Home agent address. This field contains the address of the
home
agent.
❑Care-of address. This field is the temporary (second)
address of the mobile host.
❑Identification. This field contains a 64-bit number that is
inserted into the request by the mobile host and
repeated in the reply message. It matches a request
with a reply.
Registration reply  The fields are similar to those of the registration
request with the following exceptions.
format  The value of the type field is 3
 The code field replaces the flag field and shows
the result of
the registration request (acceptance or denial).
 The care-of address field is not needed

 Data transfer
 From Remote Host to Home Agent
 From Home Agent to Foreign Agent
 From Foreign Agent to Mobile Host
Data  From Mobile Host to Remote Host
transfer
Transparency
 The remote host is unaware of any
movement
by the mobile host
 The remote host sends pac kets
using the home address of the
mobile host as the destination
address
 Remote receives packets that have
the home address of the mobile host as
the source address
Inefficiency in
Mobile IP
 Communication involving mobile IP can be inefficient

 The inefficiency can be severe or moderate

 The severe case is called double crossing or 2X

 The moderate case is called triangle routing or dog-leg routing.

Double
Crossing
Double crossing

 occurs when a remote host

communicates with a mobile host
that has moved to the same network
(or site) as the remote host

 When the mobile host sends a packet

to the remote host, there is no
inefficiency;
 the communication is local.

 when the remote host sends a packet

to the mobile host, the packet crosses
the Internet twice

 Since a computer usually

communicates with other local
computers , the inefficiency from
double crossing is significant.
Triangle
routing
occurs when the remote host
communicates with a mobile host that is
not attached to the same network (or site)
as the mobile host

 When the mobile host sends a

packet to
the remote host, there is no
inefficiency

 when the remote host sends a

packet to
the mobile host, the pac ket goes
from the remote host to
the home agent and
then to the mobile host


Solutio
n
 One solution to inefficiency is for the remote host to bind the care-of
address to the
home address of a mobile host
 For example, when a home agent receives the first packet for a
mobile host, it forwards the packet to the foreign agent; it could also
send an update binding packet to the remote host so that future
packets to this host could be sent to the care-of address. The remote
host can keep this information in a cache.
 The problem with this strategy is that the cache entry becomes
outdated once the mobile host moves.
 In this case the home agent needs to send a warning packet to the
remote host to inform it of the change