Offender profiling

Offender • Top down approach = using the Evaluation (AO3)

profiling organised/disorganised typology to categorise
criminals from the crime scene Top down approach
• Organised offenders = will show evidence of planning • Only applies to crimes that reveal
the crime in advance and will leave no evidence. something about the offender e.g. DNA
• Disorganised offenders = will show little evidence of • Outdated model of personality
planning • No evidence for the disorganised
• Bottom up approach = investigative psychology offender
(interpersonal coherence, time & place and forensic
awareness) and geographical profiling (finding the Bottom up approach
location of the offender through crime mapping. • Scientific basis using computer data
Offenders will have a jeopardy surface which will • Evidence to support investigative and
determine where they will act next. They will either be geographical profiling.
a marauder – commit crime locally or a commuter –
travel for crime.
Ways of dealing with crime
Custodial • 4 aims: deterrence (to deter people away from prison), incapacitation (to be removed from Evaluation (AO3)
sentencing society), retribution (to make the level of suffering proportionate to the crime) and rehabilitation • Bartol = offenders have a 15x higher rate of suicide in prison
(to reform individuals to avoid recidivism) with 25% of women reporting psychosis
• Psychological effects: Stress & depression with high suicide rates, institutionalisation and • Opportunities for training and treatment
prisonisation. • Could turn into a university of crime
Behaviour • Based on the behaviourist approach (operant conditioning) to replace negative behaviour with Evaluation (AO3)
modification positive behaviour. • Easy to implement and require little training
• Tokens act as a secondary reinforcer and are given for positive behaviours in prisons • Ethically imoral to remove basic human essentials
• The behaviour is broken down into simple steps (increments) and everyone in contact with the • The effects may not transfer to real life as we are not
offender must follow the same regime. rewarded in the same way in society therefore reduces
validity.
Anger • A form of CBT whereby offenders are able to identify their triggers and encouraged to develop Evaluation (AO3)
management techniques to bring about conflict resolution • Anger may not be the direct cause of offending behaviour
• 3 stags: Cognitive preparation (reflect on experience) skill acquisition (gain the skills to reduce • Expensive and relies on commitment and identification of
anger) and application practice (role play of a similar situation to practice skills) anger
• Could reduce recidivism rates
Restorative • Restorative justice is a collaboration between victim and offender with a trained mediator Evaluation (AO3)
justice • The victim gives their account of the crime and the offender can see the consequences of their • Shapland (2007) found that for every £1 spent on RJ it would
actions in order to try and reduce recidivism save the criminal justice system £8 through less offending.
• Focus is on positive change, active participation etc. • Relies on the offender showing remorse
• Mediated by the restorative justice council (RJC) • The programme can be tailored to the situation – more useful
Biological • Criminals = genetic throwbacks that cannot conform to the rules of society with distinctive facial features • Helped to develop offender profiling which
explanation: • Biological makers = strong jaw, prominent cheek bones etc. has real life application
Atavistic form • Lombroso (1876) 40% of criminal have atavistic features • Scientific racism
• Goring (1913) contradictory evidence

Biological • Twin studies = 10/12 MZ twins and 2/17 DZ twins had a co-twin in prison • Twins used in the studies were judged on
explanation: • Candidate genes = MAOA gene & CDH13 gene leads to an increased tendency for crime physical appearance rather than DNA testing
Genetic & Neural • Diathesis stress model = biological effects are mediated by the environment e.g. dysfunctional role models meaning the validity is reduced
explanations or upbringing • Support for the diathesis stress model – both
• Raine (2000) found that individuals with antisocial personality disorder (APD) had reduced activity in the nature and nurture interact. Mednick (1984
prefrontal cortex & 11% reduction in grey matter in the prefrontal cortex found that 24.5% criminals had a criminal set
• Mirror neurons = Keysers (2011) people with APD have a neural switch which can turn mirror neurons on of parents compared to 13.5% who didn’t.
and off, when asked to empathise with others. • Biological determinism

Psychological • Personality = introversion/extraversion, neuroticism/stability and psychoticism. • There are other personality traits such as
explanations: • Extraverts have an underactive nervous system where they seek excitement and engage in risk seeking openness, agreeableness and
Eysenck’s behaviours making them more prone to criminality. conscientiousness that should be considered.
personality theory • Introverts have an overactive nervous system • Research has suggested the scale is culturally
• Criminal personality = high levels of neuroticism, extraversion and psychoticism. bias with offenders in African prisons being
• Socialisation is important and extraverts cannot be conditioned and therefore cannot learn. less extraverted
• PEN levels are measured by the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) • Considers genetics as well as psychological

Psychological • Kohlberg (1973) criminals have lower levels of moral reasoning than non-criminals. • Cognitive explanations have led to cognitive
explanations: • Criminals are more likely to be in the pre-conventional level (stages 1 & 2). This is the need to avoid behavioural therapy (CBT) which can be used
Cognitive punishment and gain rewards and is associated with a child like reasoning. to alter cognitive distortions.
explanations • Cognitive distortions such as hostile attribution bias and minimalisation can create criminality. • Doesn’t explain criminality but describes it
• Hostile attribution bias = judging others behaviour as aggressive when it’s not. • Other factors may have better explanatory
• Minimalisation = denying or downplaying the serious effects of criminal behaviour power such as IQ rather than moral
reasoning.
Psychological • Sutherland (1924) criminals learn the values, attitudes and techniques through association and interaction • Difficult to scientifically test whether someone
explanations: with different people. has adopted the pro-criminal values of a
Differential • Criminality arises from two factors: Learned attitude towards crime and learning of specific criminal acts group
association theory • Pro-criminal attitudes: when a person is socialised they internalise the groups values. If the values are pro- • Successful at moving emphasis from atavistic
criminal, the individual will be more likely to adopt these values as well as adoping criminal techniques. theories
• Able to explain most crimes – more valid
Psychological • Blackburn (1993) if the superego is inadequate or deficient, it gives the ID the free will to control • Freud believed that girls have a weaker
explanations: behaviour. superego than boys therefore females are
Psychodynamic • Weak superego – if the same sex parent is absent during the phallic stage, the child cannot internalise the more prone to criminal behaviour but this is
explanations fully formed superego and therefore cannot lead to identification increasing criminality. not the case.
• Deviant superego – if the superego the child has internalised is immoral, this could lead to deviant values • Difficult to test unconscious drives such as
and increased criminality. the superego
• The over-harsh superego – the individual feels guilt and anxiety unconsciously leading to crime. • Children from families without the same sex
• Bowlby (1944) maternal deprivation can lead to affectionless psychopathy (14/44 juvenilles) parent do not always turn criminal.
 Forensic Key researchers/studies Counter-arguments Key terms
Psychology Paper (GRAVE)
3 Offender A tool to predict and profile the
24 marks Lombroso Found that from 383 dead and 3839 No control group - lowers validity profiling characteristics of unknown offenders.
Topic outline (1876) living criminals, 40% had atavistic 60% offenders did not have atavistic
Top down Using a typology
features. features - questions internal validity
approach (organised/disorganised) to profile
Offender profiling
offenders
Lange 10/13 MZ twins and 2/17 DZ twins Low sample size which leads to low
Biological (1930) had a twin in prison generalisability Bottom up Using evidence from the crime scene to
explanation: atavisic approach develop a hypothesis about the offender
form Tihonen et Individuals with the MAOA and It’s only a correlation between the Atavistic form Offenders are genetic throwbacks that do
al (2014) CDH13 gene were 13x more likely to genes and criminal behaviour not conform to society through crime
Biological
be a criminal therefore reduces internal validity of
explanation: Genetic the claims Genetics DNA that produces instructions for
and neural physical features of an organism
explanations Raine Found less activity and 11% Only used individuals with antisocial
(2000) reduction of grey matter in the personality disorder (APD) therefore it Neural Activity of the brain such as
prefrontal cortex of individuals with may not be generalisable explanations neurotransmitters, nervous system etc.
Psychological APD.
explanations: Cognitive Irrational and faulty ways of thinking and
Eysenck’s theory Justye Found that violent offenders were Had a control group - increased distortions perceptions of ourselves and others
(2014) more likely to percieve facial images validity
as angry or hostile. Small sample size of 55 violent Moral Drawing upon your own moral value
Psychological
offenders - not generalisable reasoning system to determine right and wrong.
explanations:
Cognitive theory Barbaree Out of 26 rapists, 54% denied Only used one type of offender Hostile Judging ambiguous situations as
(1991) causing offence and 40% minimised thererfore it may not be generalisable attribution aggressive or threatening
Psychological the harm caused to their victims bias
explanations:
Minimalisation Deception that downplays the
Differential Bowlby Found that 14/44 juvenille theives Low sample size therefore it cannot be significance of an event or emotion
association theory (1944) had affectionless psychopathy and generalised. Maternal deprivaiton and
12/14 experienced maternal criminality is only correlational. Differential Individuals learn the values, attitudes,
Psychological
deprivation association techniques, and motives for criminal
explanations:
theory behaviour
Links to other
Psychodynamic Keysers Found that APD individuals have a Used brain scans in their methodology
explanations
topics (2011) neural switch which can be turned which increases credibility and internal Psychodynami Unconscious conflicts drive future
on or off when asked to empathise validity. c explanations behaviour (e.g. parents and childhood)
Issues & Debates
Nature/Nurture, Recidivism A convicted criminal reoffending
Determinism/freewill Holt Found a significant difference in Used a control group who did not have
(1976) positive behaviour due to token a token economy programme. This Behaviour Application of the behaviourist approach
Approaches economy programmes. increases internal validity. modification to replace undesirable behaviour.
Biological, cognitive,
psychodynamic Anger A programme used to identify triggers of
Keen et al Offenders reported increased Only used young offenders between
awareness of their anger and self 17-21 therefore it cannot be management anger and how to treat it.
Attachment (2000)
Maternal deprivation control generalised to older/younger