EE474Energy Management and Auditing

Module 2
Presentation 1

Energy management opportunities in Lighting and Motors.

Electrolytic Process and Electric heating, Case studies.
 Energy Management Opportunities in lighting system

• In today’s cost-competitive, market-

driven economy, everyone is seeking
technologies or methods to reduce energy
expenses and environmental impact.
• Because nearly all buildings have lights,
lighting retrofits are very common and
generally offer an attractive return on
investment.
• Electricity used to operate lighting
systems represents a significant portion
of total electricity consumed mainly in
commercial buildings as shown in the
figure below
Overall Electrical energy consumption in commercial
buildings in 2012
• Electric lighting is a major energy consumer.
• Enormous energy savings are possible in lighting system using energy efficient
equipment, effective controls, and careful design.
• Using less electric lighting reduces heat gain, thus saving air-conditioning energy
and improving thermal comfort. Electric lighting design also strongly affects
visual performance and visual comfort by aiming to maintain adequate and
appropriate illumination while controlling reflection and glare.
• Lighting is not just a high priority when considering hotel design; it is also a high
return, low-risk investment.
• By installing new lighting technologies, hotels can reduce the amount of
electricity consumed and energy costs associated with lighting.
Seven practical energy-efficiency
opportunities to reduce energy use cost-
effectively in lighting system are given
below:
1. Lighting Controls
2. Replace T12 tubes with T8 tubes
3. Replace mercury light with metal halide or
high pressure sodium lights
4. Replace metal halide with high intensity
fluorescent lights.
5. Replace magnetic ballast with electronic
ballast
6. Optimisation of plant lighting in production
and non production departments.
7. Optimum use of natural sunlight.
 Energy Management Opportunities in lighting system

1. Installation of compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) in place of incandescent lamps

• Compact Fluorescent Lamps use a different, more advanced technology than

incandescent light bulbs and come in a range of styles and sizes based on brand and
purpose.
• They can replace regular, incandescent bulbs in almost any light fixture including
globe lamps for the bathroom vanity, lamps for recessed lighting, dimming, and 3-
way functionality lights.
• CFLs use about 2/3 less energy than standard incandescent bulbs, give the same
amount of light, and can last 6 to 10 times longer.
• CFL prices range
• from $4 to $15 depending on the bulb, but you save about $25 to $30 per bulb on
energy during the lifetime of the
• bulb.
 Energy Management Opportunities in lighting system

1. Installation of compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) in place of incandescent lamps

• Compact Fluorescent Lamps use a different, more advanced technology than

incandescent light bulbs and come in a range of styles and sizes based on brand
and purpose.
• They can replace regular, incandescent bulbs in almost any light fixture including
globe lamps for the bathroom vanity, lamps for recessed lighting, dimming, and 3-
way functionality lights.
• CFLs use about 2/3 less energy than standard incandescent bulbs, give the same
amount of light, and can last 6 to 10 times longer.
• CFL prices range
• from $4 to $15 depending on the bulb, but you save about $25 to $30 per bulb on
energy during the lifetime of the
 Energy Management Opportunities in lighting system

Energy Management Opportunities in lighting system

• When looking to purchase CFLs in place of incandescent bulbs, compare the light output, or
Lumens, and not the watts. Watts refers to the amount of energy used, not the amount of light. In
other words, if the incandescent bulb you wish to replace is 60 Watts, this is equal to 800 Lumens.
• To get the same amount of light in a CFL, you should look to find a CFL that provides 800 Lumens
or more (equal to about a 13 watt fluorescent bulb).
Energy Management Opportunities in lighting
system
 Energy Management Opportunities in lighting system

2. Installation of energy-efficient fluorescent lamps in place of “Conventional”

fluorescent lamps.
• Many lodging facilities may already use fluorescent lighting in their high traffic
areas such as the lobby or office area.
• However, not all fluorescent lamps are energy efficient and cost effective. There
are several types of fluorescent lamps that vary depending on the duration of their
lamp life, energy efficiency, regulated power, and the quality of color it transmits.
• There are a few styles worth noting; these models are simply labeled as “T-12”,
“T-8”, or “T-5”.
• The names come from the size of their diameter per eighth inch. For example, a T-
12 lamp is 12/8 inch in diameter (or 1 1/2 inch); a T-8 lamp is 8/8 inch in diameter
(or 1 inch); a T-5 lamp is 5/8 inch in diameter. This is a simple way to identify the
type of fluorescent lamps your facility is using.
 Energy Management Opportunities in lighting system

2. Installation of compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) in place of incandescent lamps

3. Installation of occupancy/motion sensors
to turn lights on and off where appropriate.
• Lighting can be controlled by occupancy sensors to allow operation
whenever someone is within the area being scanned. When motion can
no
longer be detected, the lights shut off. Passive infrared sensors react to
changes in motion.
The controller must have an unobstructed view of the building area being
scanned. Doors, partitions, stairways, etc. will block motion detection and
reduce its effectiveness.
The best applications for passive infrared occupancy sensors are open
spaces with a clear view of the area being scanned.
3. Installation of occupancy/motion sensors to turn lights on
and off where appropriate.
• Ultrasonic sensors transmit sound above the range of human hearing
and monitor the time it takes for the sound waves
• to return. A break in the pattern caused by any motion in the area
triggers the control.
• Ultrasonic sensors can see around obstructions and are best for areas
with cabinets and shelving, restrooms, and open areas requiring 360-
degree coverage.
• Some occupancy sensors utilize both passive infrared and ultrasonic
technology, but are usually more expensive.
• They can be used to control one lamp, one fixture or many fixtures.
• It can work in 3 modes: Time out, sensor mode and motion sensitivity settings
• The table below provides typical savings achievable for specific building areas, by
the implementation of motion sensors.
4. Use an automated device such as a key tag system
• The key tag system uses a master switch at the entrance of each guest
room, requiring the use of a room key-card to activate them.
• Using this technique, only occupied rooms consume energy because
most electrical appliances are switched off when the keycard is
removed (when the guest leaves the room).
• The key tag system uses a master switch at the entrance of each guest
room, requiring the use of a room key-card to activate them.
• Using this technique, only occupied rooms consume energy because
most electrical appliances are switched off when the keycard is
removed (when the guest leaves the room).
5. Offer nightlights to prevent the bathroom lights
from being left on all night
• Many guests opt to have a light on while they sleep. By turning the
bathroom light on and leaving the bathroom door cracked open,
guests are able to find their way through an unknown room in the
middle of the night.
• Those who are accompanied by children may often do the same to
comfort their child.
• By offering a nightlight, the energy used to power a bathroom light
during the nighttime can be avoided and guests will still be able to
feel comfortable in unfamiliar territory.
 Energy Management Opportunities in lighting system

6. Replace all exit signs with light emitting diode (LED) exit signs.

• The development of light emitting diodes (LEDs) has allowed the replacement of
exit sign lighting with a more energy efficient alternative. Multiple LEDs,
properly configured, produce equivalent lighting and consume 95% less electricity
than incandescent bulbs and compact fluorescent lamps is 75% less energy-
efficient than LED.
• A major benefit is the 20-year life cycle rating of LEDs; they virtually eliminate
maintenance. Of the three different styles of exit signs, incandescent signs are
the least expensive, but are inefficient and use energy releasing heat instead of
light. Fluorescent signs are also inexpensive and have an expected life of about
10,000 hours.
• LED exit signs are the most expensive, but are also the most efficient exit signs
available. Their payback time is usually about four years. The table on the
following page offers an easy comparison of the three models of exit signs
 Energy Management Opportunities in lighting system

6. Replace all exit signs with light emitting diode (LED) exit signs.
 Energy Management Opportunities in lighting system

7. Use high efficiency (hid) exterior lighting

• High intensity discharge (HID) lighting is much more efficient and preferable to
incandescent, quartz-halogen and most fluorescent light fixtures.
• HID types (from least to most efficient) include mercury vapor, metal halide and
high pressure sodium. Mercury vapor is seldom used anymore.
 Energy Management Opportunities in lighting system

Use high efficiency (hid) exterior lighting

• Both metal halide and high pressure sodium are excellent outdoor
lighting systems.
• High pressure sodium has a pink-orange glow and is used when good
color rendition isn’t critical.
• Metal halide, though less efficient, provides clean white light and
good color rendition.
• HID lighting is mostly utilized in floodlight, wall pack, canopy and area
fixtures outdoors.
• The best type for any application depends on the area being lit and
mounting options.
8. Add lighting controls such as photo sensors
or time clocks
• Photo sensor controls monitor daylight conditions and allow fixtures to operate
only when needed.
• Photo sensors detect the quantity of light and send a signal to a main controller
to adjust the lighting. Photo sensors are commonly used with outdoor lighting to
automatically turn lights on at dusk and off at dawn, a very cost-effective control
device. This helps to lower energy costs by ensuring that unnecessary lighting is
not left on during daytime hours.
• Photo sensors can be used indoors, as well. Building areas with lots of windows
may not require lights to be on all of the time. Photocells can be used to ensure
fixtures operate only when the natural light is inadequate by either controlling
one light fixture, or a group of lights.
Add lighting controls such as photo sensors or time
clocks
• Time controls save energy by reducing lighting time of use through
preprogrammed scheduling. Time clock equipment ranges from simple devices
designed to control a single electrical load to sophisticated systems that control
several lighting zones. They are one of the simplest, least expensive, and most
efficient energy management devices available.
• Time controls could include:
• 1) Simple time switches: automatically turn lights, fans or other electronic
devices off after a pre-set time.
• 2) Multi-channel time controls: have the ability to control from 4 to 16 duties.
• 3) Special-purpose time controls: include cycle timers for repetitive short
duration cycling of equipment or outdoor lighting time controls that combine
time clock and photo sensor technologies
Energy Management Opportunities in electric
motors
• Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy by the interaction
between the magnetic fields set up in the stator and rotor windings.
• Industrial electric motors can be broadly classified as induction motors, direct
current motors or synchronous motors.
• All motor types have the same four operating components: stator (stationary
windings), rotor (rotating windings), bearings, and frame (enclosure).
• Two important attributes relating to efficiency of electricity use by A.C. Induction
motors are efficiency (η), defined as the ratio of the mechanical energy delivered
at the rotating shaft to the electrical energy input at its terminals, and power
factor (PF).
• Motors, like other inductive loads, are characterized by power factors less than
one. As a result, the total current draw needed to deliver the same real power is
higher than for a load characterized by a higher PF.
Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors
• An important effect of operating with a PF less than one is that resistance losses
in wiring upstream of the motor will be higher, since these are proportional to
the square of the current. Thus, both a high value for η and a PF close to unity are
desired for efficient overall operation in a plant.
• Squirrel cage motors are normally more efficient than slip-ring motors, and
higher-speed motors are normally more efficient than lower-speed motors.
• Efficiency is also a function of motor temperature. Totally-enclosed, fan-cooled
(TEFC) motors are more efficient than screen protected, drip-proof (SPDP)
motors.
• Also, as with most equipment, motor efficiency increases with the rated capacity.
 Energy Management Opportunities in
electric motors
• The efficiency of a motor is determined by intrinsic losses that can be
reduced only by changes in motor design.
• Intrinsic losses are of two types: fixed losses - independent of motor
load, and variable losses - dependent on load.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors

1. Energy-Efficient Motors
• Energy-efficient motors (EEM) are the ones in which, design improvements are
incorporated specifically to increase operating efficiency over motors of standard
design.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors

1. Energy-Efficient Motors
• Design improvements focus on reducing intrinsic motor losses. Improvements
include the use of lower-loss silicon steel, a longer core (to increase active
material), thicker wires (to reduce resistance), thinner laminations, smaller air
gap between stator and rotor, copper instead of aluminum bars in the rotor,
superior bearings and a smaller fan, etc.
• Energy-efficient motors now available in India operate with efficiencies that are
typically 3 to 4 percentage points higher than standard motors.
• In keeping with the stipulations of the BIS, energy-efficient motors are designed
to operate without loss in efficiency at loads between 75 % and 100 % of rated
capacity. This may result in major benefits in varying load applications.
• The power factor is about the same or may be higher than for standard motors.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors

1. Energy-Efficient Motors
• Furthermore, energy efficient motors have lower operating temperatures and
noise levels, greater ability to accelerate higher-inertia loads, and are less
affected by supply voltage fluctuations.
• Measures adopted for energy efficiency to address each loss specifically as under:
1) Stator and Rotor I2R Losses
2) Core Losses
3) Friction and Windage Losses
4) Stray Load-Losses
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors

a. Measures to reduce Stator and Rotor Copper Losses

• These losses are major losses and typically account for 55% to 60% of the total
losses. Copper losses are heating losses resulting from current passing through
stator and rotor conductors.
• Copper losses are the function of a conductor resistance, the square of current.
• Resistance of conductor is a function of conductor material, length and cross
sectional area. The suitable selection of copper conductor size will reduce the
resistance.
• Reducing the motor current is most readily accomplished by decreasing the
magnetizing component of current. This involves lowering the operating flux
density and possible shortening of air gap.
• Rotor Copper losses are a function of the rotor conductors (usually aluminum) and
the rotor slip. Utilization of copper conductors will reduce the winding resistance.
Motor operation closer to synchronous speed will also reduce rotor Copper osses.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors

b. Measures to reduce Core Losses

• Core losses are those found in the stator-rotor magnetic steel and are due to
hysteresis effect and eddy current effect during 50 Hz magnetization of the
core material.
• These losses are independent of load and account for 20 – 25 % of the total
losses.
• The hysteresis losses which are a function of flux density, are be reduced by
utilizing low loss grade of silicon steel laminations.
• The reduction of flux density is achieved by suitable increase in the core
length of stator and rotor.
• Eddy current losses are generated by circulating current within the core steel
laminations. These are reduced by using thinner laminations.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors

c. Measures to reduce Friction and Windage

Losses
• Friction and windage losses results from bearing friction, windage and
circulating air through the motor and account for 8 – 12 % of total
losses.
• These losses are independent of load.
• The reduction in heat generated by stator and rotor losses permit the
use of smaller fan.
• The windage losses also reduce with the diameter of fan leading to
reduction in windage losses.
 Energy Manage
ment Opportunities in electric motors

d. Measures to reduce Stray Load Losses

• These losses vary according to square of the load current and are caused by
leakage flux induced by load currents in the laminations and account for 4 to 5 %
of total losses.
• These losses are reduced by careful selection of slot numbers, tooth/slot
geometry and air gap.
• Energy efficient motors cover a wide range of ratings and the full load efficiencies
are higher by 3 to 7 %.
• As a result of the modifications to improve performance, the costs of energy-
efficient motors are higher than those of standard motors.
• The higher cost will often be paid back rapidly in saved operating costs,
particularly in new applications or end-of-life motor replacements.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors

d. Measures to reduce Stray Load Losses

• In cases where existing motors have not reached the end of their useful life, the
economics will be less clearly positive.
• . Because the favorable economics of energy-efficient motors are based on
savings in operating costs, there may be certain cases which are generally
economically ill-suited to energy efficient motors.
• These include highly intermittent duty or special torque applications such as
hoists and cranes, traction drives, punch presses, machine tools, and centrifuges.
In addition, energy, efficient designs of multispeed motors are generally not
available.
• Furthermore, energy- efficient motors are not yet available for many special
applications, e.g. for flame-proof operation in oil-field or fire pumps or for very
low speed applications (below 750 rpm).
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors

d. Measures to reduce Stray Load Losses

 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors

Factors Affecting Energy Efficiency & Minimizing

Motor Losses in Operation
• Power Supply Quality
• Power Factor Correction
• Maintenance
• Age
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors

a. Power Supply Quality

• Motor performance is affected considerably by the quality of input power, that is
the actual volts and frequency available at motor terminals vis-à-vis rated values
as well as voltage and frequency variations and voltage unbalance.
• The BIS standards specify that a motor should be capable of delivering its rated
output with a voltage variation of +/- 6 % and frequency variation of +/- 3 %.
• Fluctuations much larger than these are quite common in utility-supplied
electricity in India. Voltage fluctuations can have detrimental impacts on motor
performance.
• Voltage unbalance, the condition where the voltages in the three phases are not
equal, can be still more detrimental to motor performance and motor life.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors

a. Power Supply Quality

• Unbalance typically occurs as a result of supplying single-phase loads
disproportionately from one of the phases. It can also result from the use of
different sizes of cables in the distribution system.
• The options that can be exercised to minimize voltage unbalance include:
• i) Balancing any single phase loads equally among all the three phases ii)
Segregating any single phase loads which disturb the load balance and feed them
from a separate line / transformer
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors

b. Power Factor Correction

• induction motors are characterized by power factors less than unity, leading to
lower overall efficiency (and higher overall operating cost) associated with a
plant's electrical system.
• Capacitors connected in parallel (shunted) with the motor are typically used to
improve the power factor.
• The impacts of PF correction include reduced kVA demand (and hence reduced
utility demand charges), reduced I2R losses in cables upstream of the capacitor
(and hence reduced energy charges), reduced voltage drop in the cables (leading
to improved voltage regulation), and an increase in the overall efficiency of the
plant electrical system.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors

b. Power Factor Correction

• It should be noted that PF capacitor improves power factor from the point of
installation back to the generating side.
• It means that, if a PF capacitor is installed at the starter terminals of the motor, it
won't improve the operating PF of the motor, but the PF from starter terminals to
the power generating side will improve, i.e., the benefits of PF would be only on
upstream side.
• The size of capacitor required for a particular motor depends upon the no-load
reactive kVA (kVAR) drawn by the motor, which can be determined only from no-
load testing of the motor.
• In general, the capacitor is then selected to not exceed 90 % of the no-load kVAR
of the motor. (Higher capacitors could result in overvoltages and motor burn-
outs).
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors

b. Power Factor Correction

• Alternatively, typical power factors of standard motors can provide the basis for
conservative estimates of capacitor ratings to use for different size motors.
• The capacitor rating for power connection by direct connection to induction
motors is shown in Table 2.5.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors

b. Power Factor Correction

• From the above table, it may be noted that required capacitive kVAr increases
with decrease in speed of the motor, as the magnetizing current requirement of a
low speed motor is more in comparison to the high speed motor for the same HP
of the motor
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors

c. Maintenance
• Inadequate maintenance of motors can significantly increase losses and lead to
unreliable operation.
• For example, improper lubrication can cause increased friction in both the motor
and associated drive transmission equipment.
• Resistance losses in the motor, which rise with temperature, would increase.
• Providing adequate ventilation and keeping motor cooling ducts clean can help
dissipate heat to reduce excessive losses.
• The life of the insulation in the motor would also be longer: for every 10°C
increase in motor operating temperature over the recommended peak, the time
before rewinding would be needed is estimated to be halved.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors

c.Maintenance
A checklist of good maintenance practices to help insure proper motor operation
would include:
• Inspecting motors regularly for wear in bearings and housings (to reduce
frictional losses) and for dirt/dust in motor ventilating ducts (to ensure proper
heat dissipation).
• • Checking load conditions to ensure that the motor is not over or under loaded.
A change in motor load from the last test indicates a change in the driven load,
the cause of which should be understood.
• • Lubricating appropriately. Manufacturers generally give recommendations for
how and when to lubricate their motors. Inadequate lubrication can cause
problems, as noted above. Over lubrication can also create problems, e.g. excess
oil or grease from the motor bearings can enter the motor and saturate the
motor insulation, causing premature failure or creating a fire risk.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors

c. Maintenance
• Checking periodically for proper alignment of the motor and the driven
equipment. Improper alignment can cause shafts and bearings to wear quickly,
resulting in damage to both the motor and the driven equipment.
• Ensuring that supply wiring and terminal box are properly sized and installed.
Inspect regularly the connections at the motor and starter to be sure that they
are clean and tight
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors

d. Ageing
• Most motor cores in India are manufactured from silicon steel or de-carbonized
cold-rolled steel, the electrical properties of which do not change measurably
with age.
• However, poor maintenance (inadequate lubrication of bearings, insufficient
cleaning of air cooling passages, etc.) can cause a deterioration in motor
efficiency over time.
• Ambient conditions can also have a detrimental effect on motor performance.
• For example, excessively high temperatures, high dust loading, corrosive
atmosphere, and humidity can impair insulation properties; mechanical stresses
due to load cycling can lead to misalignment.
• However, with adequate care, motor performance can be maintained.
 Energy Management Opportunies

Energy Management Opportunities in Electrolytic process

• An electrolytic process is the use of electrolysis industrially to refine metals or
compounds at a high purity and low cost.
• Some examples are the Hall- Héroult process used for aluminum, the production
of hydrogen from water, production of chlorine and caustic soda etc.
• Electrolysis is usually done in bulk using hundreds of sheets of metal connected
to an electric power source. Electrolysis process uses an electric current to drive a
chemical reaction which otherwise would not occur spontaneously.
• Electrolytic hydrogen production has been scientifically studied for more than a
century. According to the literature, hydrogen has been used by for military,
industrial and commercial purposes since late 19th century. Nowadays,
electrolytic hydrogen has a share of only 4% in the global production of the most
abundant element of the universe.
 Energy Management Opportunities

Energy Management Opportunities in Electrolytic process

• Electricity expense constitutes the largest fraction of hydrogen production costs.
High hydrogen production expenses count as the main deficiency of commercial
and industrial electrolyzes.
• Hence electrolytic methods are usually outperformed by other approaches such
as steam methane reformation. An electrolyzer is usually subjected to massive
current values in order to break the water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electrolytic Process

Electrolytic systems
• Electrolysis involves movement of positively- or negatively-charged ions within
an electrolyte between an anode (positively-charged electrode) and a cathode
(negatively-charged electrode).
The following familiar processes involve electrolysis:
• Storage batteries.
• Welding.
• Corrosion.
• Electrowinning (refining of metals such as aluminum).
• Plating and anodizing.
• Electroforming, electrochemical machining, and etching.
• Fuel cells
 Energy Management Opportunities in electrolytic Process

• Corrosion occurs as a result of oxidation-reduction reactions between a metal or

alloy and a corroding agent. Corrosion can occur as a result of chemical reactions,
which usually require high temperatures and a corrosive environment, or due to
electrochemical reactions, which are more common. Note that corrosion is an
important indirect use of energy.
• The electrochemical reactions resemble the processes that take place in a
battery. They can arise when dissimilar metals occur in the presence of an
electrolyte or in the presence of external electric currents. A common electrolyte
is water with trace amounts of dissolved salts, acids, or alkalis. The rates of
corrosion reactions are dependent on the concentration of salts, acids, or alkalis
in the electrolyte, and on the surface, temperature, and chemical constituents of
the corroding metal.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electrolytic Process

Welding
• Where possible, AC welders are preferred as they offer a better power factor and
more economical operation. Automated systems reduce standby power losses
compared to manual welding because they place the weld bead more
consistently (less start/stop).
 Energy Management Opportunities in electrolytic Process

Electrowinning
• An important use of electrolysis is the refining of metals such as aluminum.
• Basically the original process involved the electrolysis of a solution of aluminum
oxide in molten cryolite, using carbon anodes and electrodes.
• In the electrolyte solution, aluminum oxide disassociates into aluminum and
oxygen ions. As currents on the order of 105 amperes pass through the cells (at
potentials of 5.0-5.4 V), the aluminum ions migrate to the cell lining (cathode)
where they are reduced to metallic aluminum.
• This process required 15_20 kWh per kg of electricity.
• New processes have been developed that reduce the amount of electricity
required.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electrolytic Process

Plating and Anodizing

• An electric current flows in a tank where the object to be plated or anodized
serves as one of the electrodes.
• In plating, the plated object serves as the cathode and the anode has the material
to be electrodeposited.
• Alternatively, the anode may be nonconsumable carbon and the plating material
may be drawn from the bath.
• In anodizing (typical for aluminum), the object to be anodized is the anode and a
direct current produces a buildup of aluminum oxide on the surface. By use of
various organic acids, colored finishes can be produced
 Energy Management Opportunities in electrolytic Process

Electroforming, Electrochemical Machining

• Electroforming is a process whereby a thin layer of metal is deposited on an
object to be coated or on a mold that is later removed.
• The classic example is copper plated baby shoes! Electrochemical machining is
the reverse of plating; a high current is passed between an electrolyte and the
part, removing meta.
• This process is used for fine, intricate parts or hard, difficult-to-machine metals.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electrolytic Process

EMOs in Electrolytic Processes

• Summarizes typical energy management possibilities for electrolytic processes.
The greatest users of energy in this field (aside from the large indirect use caused
by corrosion) are in primary metals production, particularly aluminum and
magnesium.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electrolytic Process

EMO’s in Corrosion protection

• Use protective films, paints, epoxy
• Provide cathodic protection (sacrificial anodes)
• Cathodic protection with an applied voltage
• Electroplating and anodizing
• Use chemical water treatment (corrosion inhibitors) • Avoid contact of dissimilar
materials (dielectric unions)
 Energy Management Opportunities in electrolytic Process

EMO’s in Storage batteries

• Provide adequate maintenance (replace electrolytes, clean terminals, etc.)
• Use efficient charging techniques, charge at proper rates
• Avoid overheating, provide adequate ventilation
 Energy Management Opportunities in electrolytic Process

EMO’s in Electrolytic processes

• Insulate plating tanks
• Provide proper maintenance of electrodes and rectifiers
• Recover waste heat
• Use more efficient rectifiers (semiconductor vs. mercury arc)
• Use more efficient controls
• Develop improved electrode design and materials to increase efficiency
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric heating

Energy Management Opportunities in Electric heating:

Electric Heat Applications
Due to its relatively higher cost, electricity is not used extensively for process heat. However, there
are some types of applications where electricity offers advantages for heating.
Electric heat can take several forms:
• Resistance heating.
• Induction heating.
• Dielectric heating.
• Electric arc heating.
• Microwave heating.
• Infrared heating.
• Heat pumps
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric heating

Resistance heating
• Resistance heating makes use of the I2R law;
i.e., power dissipated is proportional to the square of the current times resistance.
• An example of this is a conventional residential electric waterheater, which has two resistance
heating elements, nominally rated at 3800 W and 240 V, single phase.
• This form of resistance heating has ahigh first law efficiency because all the heat is transferred to
the material being heated; i.e., the water.
• Losses result from conduction through the tank walls and distribution piping.
• Losses result from conduction through the tank walls and distribution piping.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric heating

Induction heating:
• Induction heating is similar to resistance heating in that the actual heating is caused by current
flowing through resistance
• However, in the induction heater, the heating current is induced in the work piece.
• An example is the heating of transformers, cores, and motor windings.
• Even though they are laminated to produce high resistance to the flow of such currents,
transformers are in effect inductance heaters.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric heating

Induction heating: induction furnace

• In an induction furnace, a coil surrounds the work piece, which must be a conductor.
• A variable frequency power source (oscillator) is connected to this coil, inducing eddy currents
that in turn heat the work piece..
• The eddy currents exhibit a “screening” effect; i.e., the current density at the surface of the work
piece is maximum and decreases exponentially with depth.
• A “penetration” depth can be defined, wherein the current has decreased to about 37% of the
surface value.
• Approximately 90% of the heating occurs within the penetration depth. Since the penetration
depth is inversely proportional to frequency, a low frequency would be used for heating a large
piece and a high frequency for a smaller size.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric heating

Dielectric Heating
• Dielectric heating refers to the heating of nonconducting materials by an electric field
• Basically, this is similar to the heating that occurs in the dielectric of a capacitor on which a high-
frequency voltage is impressed.
• The electromagnetic fields excite the molecular makeup of material, thereby generating heat
within the material. As a result, the heat is distributed uniformly throughout the work piece.
• Dielectric heating can be applied to wood, paper, food, ceramics, rubber, glues, and resins.
• The heating effect is proportional to the dielectric loss factor, the applied frequency, and the
electric field strength.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric heating

Dielectric Heating
Dielectric systems can be divided into two types:
a) RF (radio frequency) : 1 MHz – 100 MHz Range
b) Microwave : 100 MHz – 10,000 MHz Range
RF systems are less expensive and are capable of larger penetration depths because of their lower
frequencies and longer wavelengths than microwave systems, but they are not as well suited for
materials or products with irregular shapes.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric heating

Electric arc furnace:.

• The electric arc furnace has three electrodes connected to the secondary windings of a
threephase transformer. The principle is the same as in electric arc welding.
• When an arc is struck, the nearby gas is raised to such a high temperature (in excess of 5000°C)
that it becomes highly ionized. In this state, it is a sufficiently good conductor to be maintained at
high temperature by the resistive heating produced by the current.
• The high temperature of the plasma permits very efficient heat transfer. Arc furnaces with
capacities in the range of a few tons to hundreds of tons are in use.
• The primary application of electric arc furnaces is for melting and processing recycled steel.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric heating

Microwave heating:
• Microwave heating (a form of dielectric heating) is a highly efficient technique for heating by
high-frequency electromagnetic radiation.
• Typically, frequency bands are 896 or 915 MHz and 2450 MHz, corresponding to wavelengths of
about 0.33 and 0.12 m.
• Energy is deposited in the work piece according to the same principles as the dielectric heater
described above.
• Furnaces can be designed to be resonant or nonresonant.
• The microwave oven found in many homes is an example of a resonant cavity device.
• Resonant systems have efficiencies generally in excess of 50%. Again, because the heat is
deposited in the work piece, losses are minimized.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric heating

Infrared heating:
• Infrared heating is generated by i2R losses in heating lamps or devices, and this is a special case
of resistance heating.
• The difference, however, is that infrared energy can be generated in a narrow bandwidth.
• This can be applied more efficiently in some cases than combustion energy that spans a broader
bandwidth.
• To be most efficient, infrared heaters should concentrate their output at the peak of the
absorption spectrum for the material being heated.
• For water, this corresponds to a wavelength of about 2.8X1026 m.
• There are applications in papermaking, drying paints and enamels, and production of chemicals
and drugs
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric heating

Heat pump
• The heat pump is basically a refrigerator operating in reverse
• An evaporator receives heat from a low temperature heat source (the air, waste heat, ground,
water, etc.). This causes evaporation of the working fluid; the vapor is then compressed by the
compressor.
• In the condenser, it gives up the heat collected at the evaporator as well as the heat of
compression. As this heat is delivered, the vapor condenses, and the hot condensate passes
through the expansion valve.
• Heat pumps fall into the several categories, depending on the type of heating and the purpose.
Those used for residential HVAC and water heating are primarily air-source or ground-source heat
pumps, meaning they extract heat either from the air or from underground pipes. Therefore they
use air-to-air or liquid-to-air heat transfer. Larger units for commercial and industrial applications
employ liquid-to-liquid heat transfer.
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric heating

Energy Management Opportunities in Electric heating can be divided into three categories
• 1. Reduce heat losses
• 2. Use more efficient processes or equipment
• 3. Recover heat
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric heating

Reduce heat losses

• Insulate furnace walls, ducts, piping
• Put covers over open tanks or vats
• Reduce time doors are open
• Avoid cooling time for heated products
• Shutdown heating systems on tanks and ovens when not in use, or at least lower temperatures
(reduce standby losses)
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric heating

More efficient equipment or processes

• Use alternative processes (microwave, dielectric rather than fuel-fired)
• Employ recuperators, regenerators, or preheaters
• Use direct-fired rather than indirect-fired systems
• Use less energy-intensive materials and processes
• Use heat pumps for low temperature process heat
• Reduce moisture content mechanically in materials used in drying processes
• Use lower temperature processes (cold rinses, etc.)
 Energy Management Opportunities in electric heating

Recover heat
There are multiple sources: stacks, processes, building exhaust streams, cooling towers,
compressors, etc.
• Recovered heat can be used for space heating, water heating, process preheating, cogeneration,
etc.
• Many types of heat recovery systems are commercially available (heat wheels, run-around
systems, heat pipes, heat exchangers, heat pumps, etc.)