EET 426

SPECIAL ELECTRICAL
MACHINES
Module 3
Mr. Jaseem N
MESCE Kuttippuram
Synchronous Reluctance Motor -
Construction, principle of operation- phasor
diagram - torque equation - applications.
Switched reluctance motors - principle of
operation - torque equation – characteristics -
power converter circuits - control of SRM - rotor
position sensors- torque pulsations – sources of
noise- noise mitigation techniques -
applications.
 Introduction
 Operation depends on reluctance torque.
 Reluctance torque is the torque induced in an iron object in the
presence of external magnetic field.
 An induction motor with a modified rotor. Rotor turns in
synchronism with the rotating magnetic flux.
 It has no starting torque. It start like an induction motor and for
better starting torque we use auxiliary windings.
 Reluctance motor is a split phase induction motor with salient
poles. Stator of the motor has both main winding and auxiliary
winding.
 For three phase motor, auxiliary winding is not required. The rotor
of the reluctance motor is squirrel cage with some rotor teeth
removed in certain places to provide desired number of salient
rotor poles. So the airgap between stator and rotor is not uniform.
Introduction Contd..
 There are different types of reluctance motor, they are:
 • Synchronous reluctance motor
 • Split phase Variable reluctance motor
 • Switched reluctance motor
 • Variable reluctance stepping motor
 A reluctance motor is a type of electric motor that induces
non-permanent magnetic poles on the ferromagnetic rotor.
 The rotor does not have any windings. It generates torque
through magnetic reluctance.
 The motor has the following characteristics
• Simple and Robust construction
• No copper loss
• No requirement of permanent magnet
• Less initial cost
• Stator can be easily cooled
 Construction
 Reluctance motor is a split phase
induction motor with salient pole
as shown in Fig. 1
 It has main winding and starting
Stator
winding
Stator is made up of laminations of
ferromagnetic steel sheets.
Slots for housing armature
conductors are provided along the
inner periphery of the armature.
The stator of three phase reluctance
motor has three phase distributed
winding which creates rotating
magnetic field in the air gap.
 The stator of the single phase reluctance motor is similar to that of stator of
the single phase induction motor.
 It consists of starting (auxiliary winding) and running winding (main winding)
in the stator slots. This type of motor is also called as Split phase reluctance
motor.
 There is a phase difference between the current and the corresponding fluxes
in the starting and running winding. The interaction between these two fluxes
produce rotating magnetic field.
Rotor
 The rotor of the reluctance motor is of salient or projecting poles.
 No dc supply is provided to the rotor.
 The rotor of the reluctance motor is squirrel cage with some rotor teeth
removed in certain places to provide desired number of salient rotor poles.
 In Figure 2 rotor teeths are
removed in four places to produce
four pole rotor structure. So the
airgap is not uniform.
 The reluctance depends on the air
gap length. More the airgap, more
is the reluctance.
 When the rotator rotates, due to the
non-uniform air gap, reluctance also
changes.
 In a synchronous reluctance motor,
the stator and rotor should be
constructed in such a way that the
armature inductance varies
sinusoidally.
principle of operation
 Whenever a piece of ferromagnetic material is placed in a
magnetic field, a force is exerted on the material, tending to
bring it into the position of the densest portion of the field.
 Thus tends to align the ferromagnetic specimen of the
material so that the reluctance of the magnetic path
passing through the material is at a minimum.
principle of operation contd..
 When the stator of the reluctance motor is supplied with a single phase ac supply the motor
starts as an induction motor (single phase). The centrifugal switch disconnects the axillary
winding of the motor at a speed of about 75% of synchronous speed. Now the motor works
with its main winding in operation.
 Gradually it accelerates and attains speed very close to synchronous speed. When the motor
starts to run at a speed close to synchronous speed (critical speed), a reluctance torque is
produced. The rotor aligns itself in minimum reluctance position. The rotor pulls into
synchronism. After pulling into synchronism, the induction torque disappears but the rotor
remains in synchronism due to synchronous reluctance torque alone.
 The motor adjusts its torque angle for change in load as in 3-phase synchronous motor.
Figure 3(a) shows the rotor synchronized at no load.
 A step increase in load slows the rotor down, and the rotor poles lag the stator poles as shown
in Figure 3(b). The angle of lag, δ is called the torque angle. The motor adjusts its torque
angle for change in load as in the case of a 3-phase synchronous motor.
 Load is maximum when the torque angle δ = 0.
 If load increases so that δ > 45◦, the flux path is “over stretched” and the rotor falls out of
synchronism and then the motor runs at slip speed only.
 Torque–Slip Characteristic
 The torque speed characteristics of a synchronous reluctance motor is shown
in Figure 4.
 The value of the starting torque is between 300% to 400% percent of its full-
load torque.
 The starting torque is highly dependent on the position of the rotor. During
starting, main winding and auxiliary winding is there. When the motor attains
75% of synchronous speed, auxiliary winding is disconnected and the rotor
continues to rotate at synchronous speed with the main winding.
 When the speed is close to synchronous speed, the reluctance torque
developed pulls the rotor into synchronism and the rotor continues to rotate at
synchronous speed.
 The motor operates at a constant speed up to a little over
200 % of its full-load torque.
 If the loading is increased beyond the value of the pull-out torque (maximum
torque), the motor loses synchronism but continues to run as a single-phase
induction motor up to over 500 percent of its rated torque.
 Torque Equation of Reluctance Motor
The phasor diagram of synchronous reluctance motor neglecting armature resistance is shown
in Figure 5
Also we know that, I cosφ = Iq cos δ −Id sinδ
Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages
 • There is no concern with demagnetization; hence
synchronous reluctance machines are inherently more reliable
than PM machines.
 • There need not be any exciting field as torque is zero, thus
eliminating electromagnetic spinning losses.
 • Synchronous reluctance machine rotors can be constructed
entirely from high strength, low cost materials.
 Disadvantages
 • High cost than induction Motor.
 • Speed synchronization to invertor output frequency by using
rotor position sensor and sensor less control. Is required
 • Compared to induction motor, it is slightly heavier and has
low power factor. By increasing the saliency ratio Lds Lqs , the
power factor can be improved
Applications
• Metering Pumps.
• Auxiliary time Mechanism.
• Wrapping and folding Machines.
• Proportioning Devices on Pumps or conveyors.
• Synthetic fibre manufacturing equipment.
 • Processing continuous sheet or film material.
Switched reluctance motor (SRM)
 Switched reluctance motor is like variable reluctance stepper motor in
closed loop operation. It is commonly used for variable speed operation.
 In switched reluctance motor (SRM) both stator and rotor have salient
poles.
 The torque is produced when the rotor tries move to a position where the
inductance of the stator winding is maximum.
 SRM has several advantages like high efficiency, good performance in
terms of torque to inertia ratio, maximum operating speed and simple
construction.
 The electromagnetic torque is produced on variable reluctance principle.
 Uses of Power semiconductor switching circuitry and Rotor position
sensor.
 SRM is singly excited and doubly salient electrical motor.
 The rotor has no winding or magnet but built from a stack of salient pole
laminations.
 construction is simple and robust
 It requires less maintenance
 overall efficiency is better
 flexible control as motoring mode and generating mode of operations of
Construction of SRM
 Several combinations of stator and rotor poles are possible, such as 6/4 (6
stator poles and 4 rotor poles), 8/4, 10/6 etc. The configurations with
higher number of stator/rotor pole have less torque ripple.
 Stator
 Built by stacking suitably punched silicon laminations to the appropriate
length. Each salient poles carry concentric windings.
 Stator windings on diametrically opposite poles are connected in series to
form one phase of the motor.
 The overlapping of coils is avoided to minimize the mutual inductance
between the phases.
 Rotor
 Rotor Has no winding or permanent magnets on its rotor.
 It is built up of steel laminations. The laminations are stacked to the shaft
Construction of SRM contd…

Figure 6 : Different configurations of SRM

 Principle of Operation of 8/6 SRM
 The operation principle is based on the variation in magnetic
reluctance. The rotor always try to align with low reluctance
path.
 When a stator coil is excited, the rotor experiences a force
which will pull the rotor to the aligned position. 8/6 SRM has 4
phases A-A’, B-B’, C-C’ and D-D’. These phases are excited by
DC supply through switches S1, S2, S3 and S4 as shown in
Figure 7. When a stator coil is excited, the rotor experiences a
force which will pull the rotor to the aligned position.
 When phase A-A’ is energised, the rotor comes
to the maximum inductance (minimum reluctance)
position as in the first case, The rotor teeth 1 and 4
are attracted to the stator teeth A and A’ respectively
 as shown in Figure 8 (a).They are in the minimum
 reluctance position. Then dLA dθ = 0 . Figure 7: Working of 8/6
SRM
 Principle of Operation of 8/6 SRM contd….

Figure 8 : Excitation of 8/6

SR
 Next, the switch S2, is turned ON and switch S1, is turned
OFF. Now the phase A is de-energised and the phase B is
energised so that the stator teeth of B and B’ would align with
rotor teeth 2 and 5 respectively as shown in Figure (b).
 The rotor rotates in the counter clockwise (CCW) direction
and makes an angular displacement of 15◦ . The torque
developed is equal to
Principle of Operation of 8/6 SRM contd…
 Then phase winding B is switched OFF and phase
winding C is turned ON. Then the rotor experiences
a torque as dLB dθ exists. The rotor continues to
rotate in the same manner and the rotor teeth 3
and 6 are aligned along winding C as shown in Fig
(c) by rotation the rotor further by 15◦
 Then phase winding C is switched off and phase
winding D is energized by turning OFF switch S3
and turning on switch S4. Then rotor experiences a
torque and rotates further step by 15◦ .
 This is a continuous and cyclic process. Thus, the
rotor continue to rotate.
 It is a self-starting motor.

Torque Equation
Torque is due to variable reluctance principle. The flux
linkage Ψ due to the excitation of winding is given by,
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the emf induced is
given by
 Torque Speed Characteristic
 The torque/speed capability curve is shown in Figure. For speeds below
’base speed’ ωb the torque is limited by the motor current. Up to the
ωb it is possible, by means of the regulators, to get any value of current
into the motor.
 The precise value of current at a given operating point depends on the
load characteristics, the speed, the regulator and control strategy.
 In the speed range below ωb the firing angles can be chosen to
optimize efficiency or minimize torque ripple.
The base speed wb is the highest speed at which
maximum
Current can be supplied at rated voltage with
fixed firing angles.
If these angles are still kept fixed, maximum
torque at rated voltage decreases with speed
squared.
Different regions of operation are shown in Figure
 The corner point or base speed ωb is the highest speed at which maximum
current can be supplied at rated voltage, with fixed firing angles.
 If these angles are still kept fixed, the maximum torque at rated voltage
decreases with speed squared.
 However, if the conduction angle is increased (mainly by advancing the
turn-on angle) there is a considerable speed range over which maximum
current can still be forced into the motor, and this sustains the torque at a
level high enough to maintain a constant-power characteristic, even though
the core losses and windage losses increase quite rapidly with speed. This
is shown in Figure between points B and D
Power converter circuits
 The selection of controller (converter) depends upon the application.
 The main objectives of the design of the converter are performance of the
drive and cost of the drive. Some power converter circuits are
1. Two Power Semiconductor Switching Devices per phase and two
diodes
2. (n+1) power switching devices and (n+1) diodes
3. Phase winding using bifilar wires
4. Split – link circuit used with even phase number
5. C-Dump circuit.
Two Power Semiconductor Switching Devices per phase
and two diodes

 Phase winding A is connected to the dc supply through power semiconductor

devices T1 and T2 as shown in Fig. 11
 Depending upon the rotor position, when the phase winding A is to be energized
the devices T1 and T2 are turned ON.
 When the phase winding is to be disconnected from the supply (this instant is also
dependent on the position of the shaft) the devices T1 and T2 are turned off .The
stored energy in the phase winding A tends to maintain the current in the same
direction. This current passes from the winding through D1 and D2 to the supply.
Thus the stored energy is fed back to the mains.
 Similarly phase winding B & C are also switched on to the supply and switched
off from the supply in a cyclic manner.
 This circuit requires 2 power switching devices and 2 diodes for each phase
winding. For high speed operation it is required to see that the stored energy can
be fed back to the mains within the available period.
 Usually the upper devices T1, T3 and T5 are turned on and off from the signals
obtained from the rotor position sensor. The duration of conduction or angle of
conduction θ can be controlled by using suitable control circuitry.

Figure 12: Two Power Semiconductor Switching Devices per phase

and two diodes
 (n+1) power switching devices and (n+1) diodes
 This circuit makes use of less number of power switching devices and diodes as shown in Figure 13.
 When the (SCRs) switching devices T and T1 are turned on phase winding A is energized from the dc
supply.When these devices are turned off the stored energy in the phase winding is fed back to the mains
through diodes D and D1.
 When devices T and T2 are turned on the phase winding B is energized. When they are turned off, the
stored energy in B phase winding fed back to mains through diodes D and D2. Similarly in C winding.
The cycle gets repeated. This circuit makes use of (n+1) power switching devices and (n+1) diodes where
n is equal to the number of phases.

Figure 13: (n+1) power switching devices and

(n+1) diodes
 Phase winding using bifilar wires
 Each phase winding has two exactly similar phase windings as shown in
Figure 14 in which bifilar wires are used.
 Each phase consists of two identical windings and are magnetically coupled
when one of them are excited. In stepper motor, the purpose of bifilar winding
is for bipolar excitation with a reduced number of switching elements.
 When T1 is turned on the dc current passes through the phase winding A.
when the devices T1 is turned off the stored energy in the magnetic field is
fed back to the dc source through the winding A’ and D1 to the supply.
 The three devices operate in a sequential way depending upon the signals
obtained from the rotor position sensor and the chopping signals for PWM
technique obtained from the controller.

Figure 14: Phase winding using bifilar wires

 C-Dump circuit
 In the C dump circuit shown in Figure 16, the device count is reduced, ’n’ plus one
additional devices are used to bleed the stored energy from the dump capacitor C back
to supply via the step down chopper circuit. When T1 is turned ON Winding A is
energized. T1 OFF- stored energy in winding A is fed back to the source through D1
and step down chopper. Similarly other phases can also be explained.
 The mean capacitor voltage is maintained above the supply to permit rapid defluxing
after commutation.
 A control failure in the energy-recovery circuit would result in the rapid build-up of
charge on the capacitor and if protective measures were not taken the entire converter
will fail from over voltage.

Figure 16: C-Dump circuit

 Split – link circuit used with even phase number
 The circuit shown in Figure 15 is used in a range of highly efficient drives (4-80kw).
 The main power supply is split into two halves using split capacitors. During conduction, energy is
supplied to the phases by one half of the power supply. During commutation period, the phases
demagnetize into other half of the power supply.
 When switch T1 is turned on, phase winding 1 is energized by capacitor c1. When switch T1 is
turned off, the stored energy in the phase winding 1 is fed back to the capacitor c2 through diode D4.
 When T4 is turned on by capacitor C2 and phase winding 4 is energized. When switch T4 is turned
off, stored energy in the winding 4 is feedback to the capacitor C1 through diode D1. The similar
operation takes place in the remaining winding also.

Figure 15 Two Power Semiconductor Switching Devices per phase and

two diodes
Advantages
 1. Construction is simple and robust, as there is no brush.
 2. Rotor carries no windings, no slip rings and brush-less maintenance.
 3. No permanent magnet, neither in the stator nor in the rotor.
 4. Ventilating system is simpler as losses takes place mostly in stator.
 5. Power semiconductor switching circuitry is simpler.
 6. No shoot-through fault is likely to happen in power semiconductor circuits.
 7. Torque developed does not depend upon the polarity of the current in the phase
winding.
 8. The operation of the machine can be easily changed from motoring mode to
generating mode by varying the region of conduction.
 9. It is impossible to have very high speeds
 10. Depending upon the requirement, the desired torque speed characteristics can be
tailor made.
 11. It is a self-starting machine.
 12. Starting torque can be very high without excessive inrush currents.
 Disadvantages
 1. Stator phase winding should be capable of carrying the magnetizing current also, for setting
up the flux in the air gap.
 2. For high speed operations, the developed torque has undesirable ripples. As a result it
develops undesirable acoustic losses (noise).
 3. For high speeds, current waveform also has undesirable harmonics. To suppress this effect
large size capacitor is to be connected.
 4. The air gap at the aligned axis should be very small while the air gap at the inter-polar axis
should be very large. It is difficult to achieve. No standardized practice is available.
 5. The size of the motor is comparable with the size of variable speed induction motor drive.
 6. Number of power wires between power semiconductor circuitry and the motor and the
number of control cables from one controller to the power semiconductor circuitry are more and
all to be properly connected.
 7. It requires a position sensor
Applications
1. Pumps
2. Wrapping or folding machines
3. For processing of continuous sheet or film material
4. recording instruments
5. synthetic fibre manufacturing industries
CONTROL OF SRM
 Control of SRM
Proper synchronization of excitation of stator phases with rotor position is required.
The rotor position can be sensed by an Optical encoder or hall effect sensor or an indirect
sensor providing signals to the decoder.
Power transistors, T1,T3 and T5 are turned ON and OFF by gate drive signals
corresponding to the rotor positions amplified by the base drive circuits.
T2,T4 and T6 are controlled by chopping frequency signals ANDed with the rotor position
signal
which is amplified by the base drive circuit.
It has an outer speed control loop in which, actual speed is compared with the reference
speed and generates the current reference.
Actual current is taken through current sensor and compared with the reference current
based on the error signals and the signals from position decoder, output signals are
generated and amplified by base drive circuits to turn ON and OFF the devices and
accordingly phase windings A, B and C are energized.
 Rotor position sensors
tion sensors are required for proper switching. Optical position sensor and hall effect sensors are
ensing.

Optical position sensing

scheme
A perspex disc mounted on the shaft of SRM is
used as an encoder disc.
 The disc has slots and teeth equal to that of actual
rotor and slots and teeth have equal width.
 The minimum number of sensors should satisfy
the relation
where n is the number of sets of sensors and M is
the number of phases.
 The disc and side view of the position sensing
scheme is shown in figure.
 the signal obtained is amplified and signal is taken
out as shown in the figure.
Hall Effect Sensing Scheme
The scheme is based on Hall effect.
Hall effect can be explained based on the rectangular
slab shown in Fig.
 Rectangular slab is a p-type semiconductor lying in x-z
plane and carrying a current of density Jx in X direction.
 If a magnetic field of flux density By is applied in Y
direction, then voltage , Ez is developed in the Z
direction.
Ez is proportional to Jx X By and polarity depends on the
direction of By. This is called Hall effect and represented
by given Fig.
In the position sensing scheme, a light disc is placed on
the shaft and alternate N and S ceramic magnets are
pasted on its periphery.  spacing and shapes of these
magnets are identical to the rotor teeth and slots.
 Two hall sensors are placed inside the cover plate of
the stator of the motor.
 sensor has 4 probes, two for sending current and two
for taking the output voltage.