Lecture 1

Introduction to Research Methods

Dr. Mehtab S. Karim
Professor
Dept of Public Health SZABIST
22nd February, 2025
 Arnold Toynbee, one of the greatest historians,
postulated that:

• All of history can be written in a simple formula – Challenge =>

response
• The challenge is created by the environment, and then the
individual, the institution, the society comes up with a response
• Those who respond to the challenge effectively,
make history
• Those who do not rise up to the challenge become history’.
Today we live in a complex society, faced with multiple
social, economic, health and political problems which
need systematic and practical solutions. To solve these
problems, one needs to know:
how to acquire new knowledge, and
how to resolve these problems.
Research provides us the knowledge and means to take
action to resolve specific problems by:
• acquiring knowledge through gathering proper
information and
• analyzing and interpreting the results using scientific
methods and finding their possible solutions
 There are several ways through which knowledge
could be acquired

Tradition we often acquire knowledge based on

tradition which is transmitted from one generation to
the next.
From an Authority
Often we learn and readily accept new knowledge
because it is communicated by a highly respected
source.
Media myths: information provided by print media in
the past and now by the electronic and social media
are often readily accepted without verification.
Advantages: such information
• is readily available and
• requires little efforts to obtain
However there are several disadvantages relying on such
information, e.g.:
• the source of information may be wrong may be biased
or based on stereotypes
• the source of knowledge may not be based on sound and
realistic knowledge, and
• usually such a source can not be challenged since there is
no provision of critical thinking, so that one can make
reasoned judgments that are logical and well-thought out
Knowledge acquired trough personal experience

Intuition: instinctive feeling rather than conscious

reasoning. It’s the ability to perceive or know things
without conscious reasoning.
Generally, intuition does not have a mechanism for
separating accurate and inaccurate information.

Common Sense – relying on information that makes

sense. Many things that are common sense could in fact
be wrong e.g. children of a father who has a criminal
record are more likely to be criminals
Knowledge acquired trough Scientific Enquiry

• It is based on a methodical approach to the

acquisition of knowledge and not on the knowledge
gained through certain biased approach.
• If obtained through scientifically observed evidence, it
is not affected by personal beliefs, biases, attitudes,
and emotions.
While conducting research studies knowledge
acquired trough Scientific Enquiry it is considered the
best method to acquire knowledge. Such knowledge
serves as the cornerstone of research.
RESEARCH DEFINED
It is an organized, systematic, and scientific
investigation into a specific problem undertaken with
the objective of findings answers or solutions.
Thus, Research is a process which is:
• Planned and managed - to make the information
generated credible
• Creative which leads to generating new ideas,
alternatives, or possibilities that may be useful in
solving problems.
• Circular - particularly in social and health sciences, as
it always leads to raising more questions and
providing leads to further research
Thus, to pursue research properly, one must be
familiar with the research methodology to be
adopted which is about how the researcher will
• systematically design the study to ensure valid and
reliable results that address the aims and objectives
of the research to be undertaken, and
• explain what procedures will be followed to collect
and analyze data to reach conclusions.
There are mainly two types of methodologies depending on the nature of the research to be
undertaken:

Qualitative: refers to research which focuses on collecting

and analyzing words (written or spoken) and textual data
such as any written or printed information or message .
It can also focus on “softer data points”, such as body
language, opinions, attitudes, and feelings or visual
elements.

It is common to use qualitative methods when aims and

objectives of research are exploratory in nature. For
example, a qualitative methodology is used when the
purpose is to understand peoples’ perceptions about a
crime committed in a community, or their the impact of a
particular event or set of events which have affected their
life.
Quantitative Research on the other hand, focuses
on measurement and testing using numerical data

It allows us to obtain information and data about

activities, events and occurrences so that we can
identify, define, monitor and better understand
issues, problems and processes through
quantitative reasoning.

It specifies the data required to address the

Issues or problems and follows three
important steps:
• designates data gathering design & methodology
• provides interpretation of the results and
• presents arguments, discussions and critical evaluation
of the findings.
For example, a quantitative methodology is used when
the purpose is to measure the relationship between
two variables (e.g. personality type and likelihood to
commit a crime or acquire a disease), basically to test
a hypothesis or a set of hypotheses.

However, many research studies being conducted now

a days, use the mixed-method methodology, which
attempts to combine the qualitative and quantitative
methodologies integrating the two aiming at presenting
a richer picture.
 Important considerations about the Research to
be Conducted

• What is the topic and research question(s)

• Why is it important-rationale
• Where will it be conducted-Universe
• Who will be the subjects (respondents)
• How will it be conducted (Methodology), and
• What will be the policy implications of the research
 Flow Chart of the Research Process
Research Questions
1. Introduction Should contain Summary of the
Proposal including the rational
What? Why?

2. Literature Review Try to find any unresolved issues

Theoretical Approach Look for Debates/Discussions

Research Design Selection process of respondents

Research Procedures 3. How
Human Subjects Review
What Kind of Data will be required Methodology
Collection Procedures Ethical issues
Budget and Funding source

Evidence supporting hypothesis(es) 4. Data Analysis Preliminary findings and causal

relationships

Weakness 5. Statement of Limitation Lessons learnt

Contributions of the study 6. Conclusion Policy implications if any

Choosing and Narrowing the Topic
Choose an interesting topic. If the topic interests you, you will do research
more diligently and will be able to convince others about its utility.

Narrow the Topic

You may not know right away what are your research questions therefore, to
explore new possibilities, gather information on the broader topic which will
narrow your topic.

Gather background Information. For a general overview, reference sources

may be used.
Reference source are a great place to begin your research. They provide:
• ways to identify potential research topics
• An introduction to major work and key authors in your area of research
• Key information on your topic, and
• In depth knowledge related to your topic of interest
Besides journal articles one the researcher should consult Encyclopedias, which
provide general information about a variety of subjects. They also provide
definitions that may help you break down and better understand, your topic.
Now a days wikapedia is widely used to gain such information.
From Selection of a Topic to asking Research
Questions
After choosing a topic and gathering background information, focus on your questions.
Explore Questions
• Ask open ended or close ended “how and why” questions about the general topic.
• Consider why does this topic matter to you?
• Should it matter to others
• Reflect on the questions you have considered, identity one or two questions you
find engaging and which could be explored further through research.
Evaluate your research questions
• What aspect of the more general topic you will explore?
• Is your research question clear?
• In your research question focused specific enough?
• Make it sure that your research question is not too complex
• Develop Hypothesis(es)
After you’ve come up with a question, consider the path your answer might take.
• If you are making an argument, what will you say?
• How might others challenge be to your argument?
• What kind of sources will you need to support your argument?
Once a topic has been selected, ask yourself:
• What do you find interesting about the topic?
• What subtopics relate to the broader topic?
• What question do you need to ask?
• Consider your audience, who would be interested in the topic ?
How to Pursue Research

Once you have decided a topic, ask yourself:

• Are the research questions being pursued
observable, testable, and repeatable?
• Use theories or imagination to get research ideas
• Find out what has been done by reading other people’s
research or start with a review article
- this helps in understanding whether the topic and
question you have is worth considering
- it also allows you to see if there are still many questions
that need to be answered.
- you also learn about the criticisms about the particular
research such as poor measures or wrong interpretation
of results which you should avoid in your own research
study.
Thus, you will have a tremendous amount of questions to be
answered.
After identifying a topic or a problem that you’re
interested in studying, you need to take the following
steps:
1. Formulate a hypothesis (or a set of hypotheses)
2. Design a research study to address the hypothesis
3. Conduct the research study
4. Examine the data, conduct analyses and test your
hypothesis if any.
5. Draw your conclusions
6. Communicate the results
Examples of a research study:
• Impact of watching violent television programs on
mental status of young adults
• What are the risk factors for acquiring a disease
Characteristics of the scientific approach
1. Variables to be studies: the researcher must
identify the variables which are necessary to
undertake the study.
2. Operational definitions of each variable
specify the procedures used to measure
each variable. e.g. must define:
• how aggression will be measured
• what is a violent television program
3. Replication –the study should be replicable with the
same people or elsewhere if the exact same
procedures are followed.
In order to pursue your research activity you may
want to clarify the purpose of conducting research,
which may be:

THEORETICAL (FOR INTELLECTUAL PURSUITS)

Based on the desire to know or understand for the
satisfaction of knowing or understanding.

EMPIRICAL (APPLIED OR OPERATIONS RESEARCH):

Based on the desire to know for the sake of being
able to do something better or more efficiently so
that improvements can be made in performing a
task.
Applied research is more demanding, as it requires;
• specifies data to address the issues and problems
• designates the information and data gathering tools
and methodology to analyse them
• provides interpretation of the results and
• presents arguments, discussion and critical evaluation
of the findings
Since many problems confronted by the society,
need solutions, social and health scientists prefer
conducting applied research, so that they could:

· identify problems and set priorities

· Apply scientific knowledge to solve those problems
· develop new strategies, and
· advance basic understanding and the frontiers of
knowledge related to specific issues
FEATURES OF APPLIED RESEARCH
• It has much to offer as a tool in decision making for policy
formulations and program planning.

• If research is scientific then it generates valid and reliable

knowledge. Thus it can be successfully utilized for
deciding policy matters and plans of action.

• Thus at initiation, implementation and completion stages

research plays important roles.

• Since sound decisions can not be made without proper

information how to collect, analyze, interpret and present
data become the fundamental requirements for proper
decision making process.
Applied Research thus consists of an effort to:

• Describe
• Explain and
• Predict
Variations across a set of observations.

Therefore, Research depends on systematic

collection of observations on a specific issue in a
defined population and variation therein.
Population based research is an example of applied research
usually done through sample surveys which provides a basis
for decisions on:
The need for intervention
If yes, what type of intervention is needed
The target group(s) at whom it should be directed
It may be descriptive or analytical, both require collecting
such information as:
Demographic (age, sex, marital status)
Social attributes (education, ethnicity)
KAP (of health services)
Environmental and Living conditions (civic amenities)
Health Status (morbidity, mortality and fertility patterns)
Descriptive research is a method that describes the characteristics of a
population or situation. It's often used to answer questions about what, where,
when, and how.
It is conducted
when you want to identify characteristics, trends, or differences between
categories or sub-groups, especially, when you don't know much about the
prevailing situation, e.g.
• Understanding prevalence of certain disease in a city
• Opinion of people about using certain product
• Understanding the demographic makeup of a target population
But it can’t provide answers to questions about why something happened.
Analytical research on the other hand is a method of studying
information to evaluate facts and draw conclusions, on the basis why
and how something happens.
Thus, while conducting Analytical Research, the researcher has to use
facts or information already available or obtains and analyze them to
make a critical evaluation of the relationship.
It involves the in-depth study and evaluation of available information in
an attempt to explain complex phenomenon.
It also tests hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationships.
Data are numbers with a context

45 A persons age
46 A persons level of education
50,000 A persons income
These are the examples of quantitative variables.
Some variables are qualitative, e.g
Gender (male or female)
Health Status (healthy or sick)
Mother tongue
Thus, a variable is a characteristic of an individual
that can take different values for different
individuals.
END