RESEARCH

METHOD &
STATISTICS
Prof S
Mashegoane
PSYCHOLOGY:
AN
INTRODUCTION,
5ED

Chapter 2: Research Methods in

Psychology
 Communicate with the lecturer at all times.
 Prepare in advance in order to improve your
understanding.
 The lecturer’s slides do not replace the text.
 Develop and keep your notes. Always refresh your
memory by frequently going through the summary of the
lesson.
A NOTE ON THE
(SUB)MODULE:
 Although the textbook selected for use has its
own examples, the research methodology
module will use examples selected by the
lecturer. Use all examples, both in the textbook
and from the lecturer, as they will all be
relevant
LESSON PLAN

 (SUB)MODULE TITLE: Research Method & Statistics

 MODULE CODE: HPSA000

 SUBJECT AREA:

 Psychology, basic statistics

 OBJECTIVES: At the end of this module, students will

be able to:
 Describe the concept research methodology
 Describe the main types of research approach
 Explain the steps of a research process
 Understand the process of planning and executing a research
 TIME FRAME:

 Five class periods

 Breakdown
 1: Introduction, to Step 1: Planning (Selecting a research
topic)
 2: Step 2: Research methods (Identifying an appropriate
research approach;
 3 Step 3: Data collection
 4: Step 4: Analysis of data (I. Analysis of quantitative data &
II. Analysis of qualitative data);
 5: Step 5: Report findings (Presenting the meaning of the
findings);
 5: Step 6: Theory building (Data driven confirmation or
reformulation of theory)
 6: Test
LESSON PLAN
CONTINUED…
 PREREQUISITE KNOWLEDGE:

 Basic computational skills.

 MATERIALS NEEDED:

 Internet connectivity.
 Textbook – Chapter 2: Introduction to Research Methods

 PROCEDURE:

 Students are required to familiarize themselves with the

questionnaire before learning the steps of the research process.
Ideally, they should complete the questionnaire to acquire a feel of
being research respondent or participant.
 Students must do the exercise provided in class.

 ASSESSMENT:

 Students will be assessed from the end of the module.

RESEARCH
 The basis of research in psychology
 Psychology studies unobservable phenomena.
 Because of the nature of the objects of study,
psychologists conduct research to:

 Understand human and social behaviour; and

 To generate new knowledge

 Once knowledge and understanding is generated, constructs

are formed and they are studied further.
 Research =
 “Looking into”, “investigation”, “study”,
“examination”, “exploration”
 Main research paradigms/approaches:
 Quantitative: numerical data
 Qualitative: non-numeric, mostly word-
based, verbal information
 Mixed methods: combines quantitative
and qualitative data in the same study.
 The following sections will describe the
techniques or tools and methods of
conducting research
Definition of Research
Methodology
 It is the scientific study of how research is
conducted.
 The concept “methodology” is commonly used to
refer to how something is done, or the steps of
doing it.
 Thus, when studying research methodology, the
student familiarizes themselves with the various
steps normally used to study a research problem,
together with the underlying reasons for doing
so.
 Research methodology is the way in which
research problems are solved systematically.
 Research methodology involves the use of
research methods or techniques to conduct
research methodically.
 Therefore, research methods or techniques are
elements of research methodology.
 Contrast Research methodology with Research
methods
 Research methodology is the science, and
research methods are the particular
techniques used to conduct research.
MAIN APPROACHES TO
RESEARCH
 A researcher follows different steps in conducting
research.

 To repeat, the two main approaches followed to

conduct research are:

 The quantitative approach, and the

 the qualitative approach
 Contrasting the qualitative and the quantitative
approaches:
 Researchers reach conclusions on the basis of data
 Therefore research is empirical.
 Empirical is an adjective used to describe that something
is concerned with, or verifiable by experience or
observation rather than theory or pure logic.
 There are two types of empirical research, namely:
 qualitative and the quantitative
 Qualitative research produces textual data
 Collects subjective data often through subjective interviews
and observations.
 Textual data requires narrative descriptions in its analysis

 Quantitative research produces quantifiable data

 Identifies variables and develops scales to study them.
 Quantifiable data requires statistical analysis

 Thus there are qualitative research methods, and

quantitative research methods
STEPS OF THE RESEARCH
PROCESS
 Step 1: Planning
 Selecting a research topic

 Step 2: Research methods

 Identifying an appropriate research approach

 Step 3: Data collection

 Collecting relevant information for the study

 Step 4: Analysis of data

 Analysis of quantitative data

 Step 5: Reporting findings

 Presenting the meaning of the findings

 Step 6: Theory building

 Data driven confirmation or reformulation of theory

STEP 1: PLANNING
SELECTING A RESEARCH TOPIC
 A topic must reflect the researcher’s
concerns and objectives:

 For instance, refutation of existing theory,

 Resolution of an empirical disagreement,
or
 Simply, replication of another study
 Literature Review:
 Identification of a topic is followed by a
thorough review of the relevant literature.
 Reason: Literature review may provide the
reason(s) for conducting a study
 Sources: Journal articles, books
 Method: Search engines; open internet must
be used with caution
 In times of the coronavirus, it is natural that
research focus for socially responsible
researchers will be spread of the virus and its
various consequences.
 Most journals have dedicated issues to
coronavirus research, and have made the
journals freely available.
 Popular magazines and newspapers cover the
topic.
 Books take longer to appear.
 Formulating the research problem
and posing the research questions

 The research problem posed must be

researchable
 For instance, it must be quantifiable
(quantitative research), or
 Sharable/disclosable (qualitative research)
QUICK EXERCISE.
 There is no point in asking a question that you
as a psychologist may not be able to answer.
 A nursing student has limitations to what can
be accessed.
 Similarly, a social work student has access to
almost all patients, but it is under special
circumstances.
 Explore the limits and possibilities of what you
can and cannot research within your discipline.
CLASS TASK 1
 Task
 Briefly describe what qualitative research is.
 Briefly describe what quantitative research is.
 What is the difference between research methods and
research methodology.
 Formulate a research topic on coronavirus (Novel
Coronavirus; 2019-nCoV; or SARS-Cov-2):
 Familiarisation with an aspect of the steps of research to be
covered.
 The topic can be either be qualitative or quantitative
 .
STEP 2: RESEARCH METHODS
IDENTIFYING AN APPROPRIATE
RESEARCH APPROACH
 Types of research studies

 exploratory study: explore

 descriptive study: describe
 explanatory study: explain
 Types of research design (the how)

 Quantitative research design:

 e.g., cross-sectional (associations)
and experimental (causal) design
 Qualitative research design:
 e.g., case study and
phenomenological design
 Using variables in the design of a
quantitative research study

 Definition: A variable is a property of an

individual that could vary.
 Types: Independent variables (IV)
[predictor]
Dependent variables (DV) [outcome]
QUICK EXERCISE.
 Identify variables you can study within the context of the
coronavirus epidemic.
ASPECTS TO BE THOUGHT
THROUGH AND INCORPORATED
WHEN PLANNING A STUDY
 Units of analysis
 The primary entity that is the focus of a study
 E.g., individual, group

 Hypothesi(e)s
 A tentatively suggested answer to a research
question;
 To be proved to be true (accepted) or false
(rejected)
 Time frame
 Cross-sectional: data collected at one point only
 Longitudinal: data collected over a period of time
 Sampling
 When the units to be studied are small in
quantity, it is possible to collect information
from all of them
 When they are many, information is collected
from a representative group drawn from the
total population.
 Population parameters, sample statistics and
statistical inference (p. 25, last paragraph of the text)
 “Specific information that relates to a population is called
a population parameter. Similarly, information that relates
to a sample or representative group of people from the
population of interest is called a sample statistic. Most
often, population parameters are unknown because
researchers are unlikely to be able to get information from
every single person who is able to provide that
information. Therefore, conclusions about population
parameters are made on the basis of sample statistics.
 The practice of generalising findings from a sample to a
population is called statistical inference. “
 The sampling frame
 It is a complete list of the popula­tion of a particular
study.
 Types of sampling
 prob­ability sampling, and non-probability sampling.

 Prob­ability sampling:
 Definition: every unit of analysis in a popula­tion has
an equal chance of being selected into a sample
 Examples: Simple random, interval, stratified
random and multi-stage sampling.
 Non-probability sampling:
 Definition: There is no concern with sample
repre­sentativeness, since results will not be
generalised to the population.
 Examples: Convenience/accidental, purposive
sampling and snowball sampling.
 How many is enough?
 Quantitative study: Sample size depends on the size of
the population; or the type of statistical analysis to be
conducted.
 Qualitative study: Sampling is done until a point of
saturation.

 Page 27 of the prescribed text:

 “… for both qualitative and quantitative research­ers,
there is no definitive answer to the question: "How big is
big enough?" Deciding on a sample size will depend on
the level of accuracy a researcher requires, the degree of
diversity within the population of interest, and the
amount and quality of data gathered.”
STEP 3: DATA COLLECTION
COLLECTING RELEVANT INFORMATION FOR
THE STUDY
Levels of measurement
 Nominal scales
 Purpose: classification of variables into mutually
exclusive categories and assigning them labels
in the form of numbers.
 Examples: male (=1) and female (= 2); young
(=1), middle-aged (= 2) and old (= 3); happy
(=1) and sad (= 2).
 Ordinal scales
 Purpose: assigning labels to variables in the
form of numbers such that one variable can be
placed in relation to another in terms of the
amount of the relevant attribute that they
possess.
 Example: examination marks - E (0-40%) = fail;
D (41-50%) = unsatisfactory; C (51-60%) =
satisfactory; B (61-70%) = good, and A (71%+)
= excellent.
 “The numbers assigned are not only mutually
exclu­sive labels of examination attainment, but
can also indicate that a score of 1 is worse than
a score of 2, or that a score of 2 is better than a
 Interval scales
 Purpose: In an interval scale the assigned
numbers have equal intervals, although there is
no zero point.
 Example: IQ, emotional stability.

 “Most measures in the behavioural sciences are

interval measures.”
 Ratio scales
 Like interval scales, but superior because they have a
true zero
METHODS FOR GATHERING
DATA

 Observation
 Non-participant observation involves a researcher
observing people without interacting with them.
 Participant observation entails becoming part of a
group, and covertly observe its behaviour during
interactions.

 Interviews
 Definition: Interviewing is a process of gathering
information for research using ver­bal interaction.
 Types:
 Structured interview: the inter­viewer follows a set list of
questions in a certain sequence.
 Unstruc­tured interview (an open-ended interview): The
researcher merely tries to remain focused on an issue of
study and uses few pre-determined questions, if any. The
format is appropriate when the aim is to gain insight into
the participant's interpretation of his/her experi­ences.
 Semi-structured interview: the researcher ensures that
certain areas of questioning are covered but there is no
fixed sequence or format of questions.
 Questionnaires
 Description: A questionnaire is a text that asks
specific questions in a specific order.
 Types:
 Administered questionnaires: Completed by
participants in the presence of the researcher.
 Self-administered questionnaires: Completed by
participants without the presence of the
researcher.
 Medium: Paper-and-pencil; electronic
 Focus group interviews:
 Basically entail a group discussion, facilitated
by a moderator, that explores a particular topic
selected by the researcher.

 Other methods of gathering data:

 Documents analysis
 Analysis of audio
STEP 4: ANALYSIS OF DATA
I. ANALYSIS OF QUANTITATIVE DATA

 Entering data into a database

 After collecting data, responses are assigned numbers.
 The numbers are then captured in a computer, and
subjected to statistical analysis.
 Prior to analysis, data is checked for capturing errors,
and, where necessary, the error in the ques­tionnaire is
corrected.
 Analysis is conducted after data has been cleaned.
METHODS OF INSPECTING
PATTERNS OF SCORES IN A
DATA SET
 Basic type of data analysis
 Descriptive data analysis:
 A descriptive data analysis describes data by examining
the distribution of scores for each variable.
 Scores can be examined visually on a frequency
distribution
 Extract from page 31 of the text:
 “The researcher would need to conduct statistical
analyses before being able to claim that the difference in
empowerment among these two groups of women is a
statistically significant finding.”
 Measures of central tendency:
 Definition: They each provide a researcher with a single
numerical value, particularly the typical value, that
represents all the values of a given variable in the dataset.
 Examples:
 Mode: the most commonly occurring score in a distribution.
 Median: the middlemost score when the scores are ordered
from lowest to highest.
 Mean: the average score. The exact midpoint.
 Measures of variability:
 They provide an indication of how variable or
diverse the spread of scores are.
 Types of measures of variability:
 the range: the difference between the highest and lowest
number.
 the variance: the average of the squared differences from the
Mean (variance measures variability from the average or
Mean.)
 Formula for the variance ()

 the standard deviation: indicates, on average, how far each

value lies from the Mean; or
 based on the calculations/formulae, the square-root of the
variance.
 Formula for the standard deviation (SD):
 SD = in simpler terms, (since the SD reflects the
dispersion of the distribution) it is a number used to tell
how measurements for a group are spread out from the
average:
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
STEP 4: ANALYSIS OF DATA
II. ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE DATA

 Transcription of data
 Audio recording must be transcribed to text, word for
word.
 Transcripts are the basic materials used for analysis.

 Types of qualitative data analysis methods

 thematic analysis: themes are created by identifying
groups of common units in a transcript.
 narrative analysis: a “plot” or how an individual
makes sense of their reality is extrapolated from a
narrative.
 discourse analysis: explores how sets of meaning
emerge from the structure of language.
 Additional methods:
 Archives: reports, records, and so on.
 Group
 Verification of qualitative data
 Correspondence check techniques: checking the
correspondence of one’s analysis to that
conducted by colleagues
 Verifying the correctness of the analysis with the
respondents.
 Consideration of alternative interpretations.
STEP 5: REPORTING FINDINGS
PRESENTING THE MEANING OF THE FINDINGS

 It is important to ensure that the results that

are analysed and reported were not influenced
by error and bias.
 Measurement error in quantitative data refers
to data that can be described as inaccurate or
wrong.
 Where error and bias occur, it is impor­tant to
make every effort to identify, reduce, and/or
compensate for them.
 Two types of measurement error in quantitative data:
 constant errors: errors influencing all the data
 random errors: errors occurring occasionally and/or due
to particular assessment conditions

 Various types of bias:

 Participant bias
 Interviewer bias
 Researcher bias
 Analyst bias
 The issue of objectivity and reflexivity
Research reports
 The organisation of a research report
 The way in which one struc­tures a report will
depend on the audience for which it is intended.
 Format of a report:
 The introduction of a research report
 “The purpose of the introduction is to give the reader a clear
idea about what is known about the research topic, what is
unclear or unknown, and what and how the study will add to
the relevant field.”
 The method of a research report
 “The researcher must say how participants were recruited
into the sample, what instructions were given to them, how
the setting was arranged, how long the activities took, and
how ethical issues such as informed consent were addressed.
Finally, the process whereby the data was analysed should be
provided in detail.”
 The discussion of a research report
 The references of a research report
 All references are reported.
 Psychological reports use the APA publication manual 7 th
edition
 The abstract, executive summary and appendices of a
research report
STEP 6: THEORY BUILDING
DATA DRIVEN CONFIRMATION OR
REFORMULATION OF THEORY
 “The findings from a research study will either confirm or
refute the theory that provided the explanatory frame­
work for the research.”
THE END OF THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
MODULE