Security+

Lesson 1
Authentication Methods
Lesson Objectives

Identify foundational security services and concepts

List basic authentication concepts (what you know, what
you have, who you are)
Define authentication methods, including Kerberos,
certificates, CHAP, mutual authentication, tokens, smart
cards and biometrics
Identify the importance of multifactor authentication
Control authentication for modern operating systems
The CIA Triad
CIA and Non-Repudiation

Repudiation: an illicit attempt to deny sending or receiving a

transaction. Examples of transactions include:
 A user sending an e-mail message to another user
 Web session in which a purchase is made
 A network host sending a series of port scans to a remote server
Non-repudiation: the ability to prove that a transaction has, in
fact, occurred
Non-repudiation is made possible through signatures (digital
and physical), as well as encryption and the logging of
transactions
Additional Security Terms
Authentication Attack
Authorization Compromise
Access control Counter-
Asset measure
Vulnerability Malicious user
Threat Exploit
Threat Agent Authentication
Risk information
Security+ Exam:
Authentication, Access Control and Auditing

The Security+ exam focuses on the following

concepts:
 Authentication
 Access control
 Auditing access to systems
Security and Business Concerns

Security is a business concern: In most cases the

business’s most important asset is the information
it organizes, stores and transmits
Foundational security documents
 Trusted Computer Systems Evaluation Criteria (TCSEC)
 ISO 7498-2
 ISO 17799
 Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)
Authentication

Authentication credentials can include:

 A user name and password
 Tokens, such as those created by token cards
 Digital certificates
Summarizing the logon process
 Identification
 Authentication
 Authorization
 Access
Authentication Methods
Proving what you know
Showing what you have
Demonstrating who you are
Identifying where you are
Authentication Tools and Methods
Mutual Tokens
authentication One-time
Single sign-on passwords
authentication Challenge-
User name and Handshake
Authentication
password
Protocol (CHAP)
Kerberos Smart cards
Certificates Biometrics
Authentication Tools and Session Keys

Session keys are generated using a logical program

called a random number generator, and they are
used only once
A session key is a near-universal method used
during many authentication processes
Multifactor Authentication

Security and multifactor authentication

Complexity and multifactor authentication
Single Sign-on Authentication
A single system (can be a set of servers) holds authentication information
When a user, host or process has a credential, it is said to have a security
context
Single Sign-on Authentication (cont’d)

Examples of single sign-on technologies

 Novell Directory Services
 Microsoft 2003 Server Active Directory
 Microsoft Passport
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Single sign-on and delegation
Drawbacks and benefits of single sign-on
technology
Mutual Authentication
Both the client and the server authenticate with
each other, usually through a third party
Mutual authentication goals
Examples of mutual authentication
 Kerberos
 Digital certificates
 IPsec
 Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP)
Simple and complex mutual authentication
User Name and Password
The most traditional and common form of
authentication (probably the most common)
Account protection
 Password length  Password uniqueness
 Password complexity  Reset at failed logon
 Password aging  Account lockout
Enforcing strong passwords
 Windows 2003 Server
 Linux
Applying user name and password-based
authentication: Windows and Linux
 Authentication in Windows and Linux
Linux
 Root account
 Security and the root account
 Shadow passwords
 The /etc/passwd, /etc/group, and /etc/shadow files
 Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM)

Windows
 Five default registry keys:
HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT, HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE, HKEY_USERS, HKEY_CURRENT_USER, HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG
 Security Accounts Manager (SAM)
Understanding Kerberos
A method for storing keys in a centralized repository
Kerberos versions
 Version 4
 Version 5
 Microsoft
Kerberos components
 Key Distribution Center (KDC)  Resource
 Principal  Trust relationship
 Authentication Service (AS)  Repository
 Ticket Granting Service (TGS)  Realm
 Ticket Granting Ticket (TGT)  Ticket
Understanding Kerberos (cont’d)

Additional Kerberos elements

Kerberos realms and DNS
Kerberos principals
 Principal name
 Optional instance
 Kerberos realm
Understanding Kerberos (cont’d)
Obtaining a TGT
Understanding Kerberos (cont’d)
Client authentication via Kerberos
Understanding Kerberos (cont’d)

Kerberos and the Network Time Protocol (NTP)

Kerberos strengths and weaknesses
Ports used in Kerberos
Directory-based communication
Kerberos and interoperability
Delegation and Kerberos
Certificates

A certificate (i.e., digital certificate) acts as a trusted

third party to allow unknown parties to authenticate
with each other
Issued by a Certificate Authority (CA)
Digital certificates used in modern systems conform
to the ITU X.509 standard
Certificate types
Establishing trust
Token-Based Authentication

A form of multifactor authentication

Two methods of token-based authentication
 Hardware (for example, token card)
 Software
Strengths and weaknesses
 Token-card-based authentication combines something-you-have
authentication with something-you-know authentication—consequently, it
provides more security
 Inconvenience and still password-based
One-time passwords
 Common implementations
 Strengths and weaknesses
Challenge Handshake
Authentication Protocol (CHAP)

The secret is shared between two systems, but is

never sent across the network wire
CHAP requirements
The CHAP handshake
Strengths and weaknesses
Smart Cards
Smart card components
Types of smart cards
Smart Cards (cont’d)

Smart card uses

Smart cards and infrastructure security
Smart card benefits and drawbacks
Biometrics

Biometric-based authentication uses a person's

physical characteristics as a basis for identification
Strategies
 Fingerprints  Iris scans
 Hand geometry  Face recognition
 Voice recognition  Vascular patterns
 Retinal scans
Biometric implementations and standards
Benefits and drawbacks
Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP)

Allows multifactor authentication over Point-to-

Point-Protocol and wireless links
Capable of supporting authentication by way of
various methods, including:
 RADIUS
 CHAP
 Token cards
 Digital certificates, using EAP-tunneled TLS (EAP-TLS)
 A Kerberos server
Security+
Lesson 2
Access Control
Lesson Objectives
Define common access control terminology and
concepts
Define Mandatory Access Control (MAC)
Implement Discretionary Access Control (DAC)
Define Role-Based Access Control (RBAC)
Identify operating systems that use MAC, DAC and
RBAC
Follow an audit trail
Access Control Terminology and Concepts
Access control is the use of hardware-based and software-
based controls to protect company resources
Access control can take at least three forms
 Physical access control
 Network access control
 Operating system access control
Three essential terms for the Security+ exam
 Identification: occurs first; user presents credentials
 Authentication: the operating system checks credentials
 Authorization: the operating system recognizes the user
Subjects, objects and operations
Additional access control terms
The Audit Trail: Auditing and Logging
All secure, modern network operating systems have a
dedicated auditing service, which is responsible solely for
documenting system activities (the “audit trail”)
Activities, or events, include successful and failed logons,
clearing of log files, and resource modification
The auditing system should remain isolated
Audit trails and physical resources
Operating systems and the audit trail
 Windows-based events and issues
 Linux events and issues
Filtering logs
Audit trails, remote logging and hard copy backups
The reference monitor and system elements
Access Control Methods

The three major access control methods

 Discretionary Access Control (DAC)
 Mandatory Access Control (MAC)
 Role-Based Access Control (RBAC)
You must understand the details of each of these
models, as well as how they relate to operating
systems that you may already administer
Discretionary Access Control (DAC)
Users control access to resources (in other words, objects)
they own
Essential concepts
 Ownership
 Permissions
 Access control list (ACL)
 Capabilities
DAC-based systems and access control lists
Default policies
Common permissions and inheritance
DAC-based operating systems and ownership
DAC strengths and weaknesses
Mandatory Access Control (MAC)
Systems that use Mandatory Access Control (MAC) are not
based on user ownership of resources; ownership is
controlled by the operating system, not the individual user
Three essential MAC principles
 Access policy
 Label
 Access level
Understanding access levels
Types of MAC, and overview of MAC-based systems
Data import and export
MAC-based operating systems
MAC advantages and drawbacks
Role-Based Access Control (RBAC)
Operating systems and services that use Role-
Based Access Control (RBAC) manage users and
services based on the function of that user or
service in a particular organization
Based on MAC
RBAC and the health-care industry
Operating systems, services and RBAC
Preparing for RBAC
Role hierarchies
RBAC benefits and drawbacks
Balancing Responsibilities of Security

When you determine access control for resources,

your responsibility as a security professional is to
manage the following
 Availability requirements
 Security requirements
Ways to meet the challenge of achieving balance
include:
 Planning security implementations from the top down
 Training end users, as well as security and IT workers,
regarding the access control model used in your company
Security+
Lesson 3
Cryptography Essentials
Lesson Objectives
Identify basic cryptography concepts
Implement public-key encryption
Define symmetric-key encryption
List hashing algorithms
Identify ways that cryptography helps data confidentiality,
data integrity and access control
Identify the importance of cryptography to non-repudiation
and authentication
Use digital signatures
Define the purpose of S/MIME
Cryptography and Encryption
In practical terms, cryptography is the study of
using mathematical formulas (often called
problems) to make information secret
The word cryptography is based on the Greek
words "krypt" (secret) and "graph" (writing)
 Encryption, a subset of cryptography, is the ability to
scramble data so that only authorized people can
unscramble it
Common cryptography terms
Cryptography and Encryption (cont’d)
Types of encryption algorithms
 Symmetric key
 Asymmetric key
 Hashing
Services provided by encryption
 Data confidentiality
 Data integrity
 Authentication
 Non-repudiation
 Access control
Establishing a trust relationship
Hash Encryption

The use of an algorithm that converts information

into a fixed, scrambled bit of code
Uses for hash encryption
Specific hash algorithms used in the industry
 Message digest (a family of hash algorithms)
 HAVAL
 RIPEMD
 Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA)
Collisions and salt
Symmetric-Key Encryption
One key both encrypts and decrypts information
Symmetric-Key Encryption (cont’d)
Symmetric-key encryption uses rounds to encrypt
data; each round further encrypts data
Benefits
 Fast: usually even large amounts of data can be encrypted in
a second
 Strong: usually sufficient encryption achieved in a few rounds;
using more rounds consumes more time and processing
power
Drawbacks
 Reaching a level of trust
 First-time transmission of the key is the classic problem
Block and Stream Ciphers
Block ciphers: Data is encrypted in discrete blocks
(usually 64 bits in size). A section of plaintext of a
certain length is read, and then it is encrypted.
Resulting ciphertext always has the same length as
the plaintext.
Stream ciphers: Data is encrypted in a continual
stream, one bit at a time, similar to the way data
passes in and out of a networked computer.
 Most commonly used in networking
 Strategies for ensuring randomness: pseudo-random number
generators and initialization vectors
One-Time Pads

A specific application of a stream cipher

Considered highly secure (many references feel
OTPs are unbreakable)
Drawbacks
 Reliant on a secure transmission channel
 Generating sufficiently random data can drain resources
Symmetric-Key Cipher Types

Cipher types include the following

Type Description
Substitution Plaintext is converted into ciphertext by replacing the binary
representations of certain characters with others. In a similar
example, Julius Caesar developed a wheel (called Caesar's
wheel) that substituted letters of the alphabet for others.

Transport- Ciphertext is created by moving data from one part of a

ation message block, rather than simply substituting it. Uses
complex mathematical problems that allow data to be radically
changed.

Processing binary data for encryption

XOR process
Symmetric Algorithms
Data Encryption Standard (DES)
 Phases of DES encryption
 Modes of DES
 DES advantages and drawbacks
Triple DES and other DES variants
Symmetric-key algorithms created by the RSA Corporation,
including RC2, RC4, RC5 and RC6
IDEA
Blowfish
Skipjack
MARS
ISAAC
Symmetric Algorithms (cont’d)

Serpent
CAST
Rijndael
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
 Many candidates
 Rijndael chosen
Additional symmetric algorithms
Strengthening Symmetric-Key Encryption

The most effective ways to strengthen symmetric-

key encryption
 Provide for additional encryption rounds
 Increase the length of the key
 Change keys regularly
 Do not send the key across a network connection
Examples of symmetric-key encryption
Asymmetric-Key Encryption

Uses a key pair in the encryption process rather

than the single key used in symmetric-key
encryption
A key pair is a mathematically matched key set in
which one half of the pair encrypts and the other
half decrypts
 What A encrypts, B decrypts; what B encrypts, A decrypts
 The two keys in the pair are, in effect, two sides of the same
coin
 Asymmetric-Key Encryption (cont’d)
One of the keys in the pair is made public, and the other is kept private.
If you encrypt to a public key, only the related private key can decrypt it.
Examples of Asymmetric-Key Encryption
Although the key pair is related, it is difficult (if not impossible) to derive the
value of the private key from the public key
Sending Messages

When using asymmetric-key encryption to send a

secret to X, encrypt the secret with X's public key,
then send the encrypted text
When X receives the encrypted text, X will decrypt it
with a private key
Anyone who intercepts the encrypted text cannot
decrypt it without X's private key—this is true even
if he or she has X’s public key
Asymmetric-Key Encryption and SSL/TLS

Whenever a Web browser uses SSL/TLS, it is using

asymmetric-key encryption
SSL/TLS and LDAP
Asymmetric-key encryption and data confidentiality
Asymmetric-key encryption and data integrity
Asymmetric-key encryption and non-repudiation
Elements Used in Asymmetric-Key Encryption
Elements that can be used in asymmetric-key encryption
 Diffie-Hellman
 RSA
 El Gamal
 DSA
 Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC)
Benefits
 Secure key exchange
 Data can be encrypted strongly
Drawbacks
 Slow, processor-intensive encryption
 Usually, asymmetric-key encryption is used to encrypt small amounts of
data, such as symmetric keys (which are in turn used to encrypt large
amounts of data, such as e-mail messages and attachments)
Applied Encryption
Digital signature: a unique identifier that
authenticates a message, as would a standard,
written signature
 A digital signature combines a private key generated by an
asymmetric-key algorithm (e.g., RSA or DSA) and hash
encryption (e.g., SHA-1 or MD5)
Services provided by digital signatures
 Authentication
 Non-repudiation
 Data integrity
 Digital signatures do not provide data confidentiality
Creating a digital signature
Applied Encryption (cont’d)
Using PGP/GPG to encrypt e-mail messages
Applied Encryption (cont’d)
Decrypting
e-mail messages
Applied Encryption (cont’d)

Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) and

Secure MIME (S/MIME)
Encrypting network transmissions
Message Authentication Code (MAC)
Message Authentication Code (HMAC)
Creating a Security Matrix
Encryption limitations
Access control and encryption
Security+
Lesson 4
Public Key Infrastructure
Lesson Objectives
Define Public Key Infrastructure (PKI), including
standard, protocols, certificate policies and practice
statements
Identify certificate authority (CA) trust models
Define the certificate life cycle, including key
escrow, expiration, revocation, recovery and
renewal
Store keys
Identify benefits of multiple key pairs
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) Essentials
A Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) is a collection of
individuals, networks and machines that together have the
ability to authoritatively confirm the identity of a person,
host or organization
Can be used for many purposes, from SSL/TLS to IPsec and
S/MIME
Common PKI terms
Creating a CA
 Types of certificates
 Choosing certificate types
Using a certificate
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
Essentials (cont’d)

PKI standards and protocols

 Public-Key Cryptography Standards (PKCS)
 Distinguished Encoding Rules (DER ) and BASE64 encoding
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 1363
standard
 Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
Essentials (cont’d)
X.509:
The
digital
certificate
format
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
Essentials (cont’d)

The X.509 v2 and v3 standards add the following

fields
 Issuer unique identifier
 Subject unique identifier
 Extensions (v3)
Common X.509 field codes (e.g., S, E and CN)
Certificate concerns
PKIX
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
Essentials (cont’d)
Certificate policies
 Determines how employees in an organization should use
certificates
 A public, unencrypted document that should be posted as a
reference document
Certificate Practice Statement (CPS)
 Explains exactly how a CA verifies and manages certificates
 A process document
 Describes how authentication information is verified and how
certificates will be generated
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
Essentials (cont’d)
Certificate
revocation
 Certificate
Revocation
List (CRL)
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
Essentials (cont’d)

CRLs versus the Online Certificate Status Protocol

(OCSP)
 OCSP is a client-server protocol that allows you to obtain
certificate revocation information more selectively
 Instead of downloading a list, you can query a server for a
particular certificate name
Common Trust Models

Web of trust
Common Trust Models (cont’d)
Single CA trust
Common Trust Models (cont’d)
Hierarchical trust
Common Trust Models (cont’d)

Benefits and drawbacks

Transitory and non-transitory trust
Key Management and the Certificate Life Cycle
Elements of the
key life cycle
Key Expiration
Whenever a key is created, it has a specific
beginning and ending date
As a key reaches the specified ending date, it
expires
The primary reason for having a key expire is to
thwart repeated password-guessing attacks
Standard practice is to make certificates expire in
periods such as one, two or even five years
Key and Certificate Revocation
Revocation occurs when a key is deemed no longer
valid before its expiration date
Key revocation occurs after a given period of time,
and is expected
Status checking for keys
 Many times, the CA will automatically contact a PKI client with
a reminder that the certificate is about to expire
 This warning gives the client time to renew the certificate and
continue working
 Usually, you must read the CRL, or use OCSP
Key Suspension
A key does not necessarily have to be revoked
when a change occurs in an organization—it can be
suspended, which means that it is invalid for a
specified period of time
Suspension is useful when an employee goes on an
extended leave, for example
Checking status
 You can check status of a suspended key by checking the
CA's CRL or its OCSP-enabled service
 A suspended key will be denoted by a message such as
"Certification Hold”
Key Renewal

A key does not necessarily have to expire

It is possible to renew a key so that it remains valid
for a specific period of time
Two critical points
 If a key expires, it cannot be renewed—you must then renew
a certificate before its expiration date
 If a key expires, you must generate a new key pair
Key Destruction
When a key pair is destroyed, all private and public
keys are eliminated, along with all information in the
CA's database about the entity (for example, a
company) that owned the keys
The key owners are no longer registered with the
CA
Key destruction is different from key revocation
because in key pair revocation, only the key pairs
are destroyed; the key owners remain registered
with the CA, and still have the ability to create a new
key pair
Certificate and Key Storage
Back up all received keys on a secure medium
 Hardware storage (smart card)
 Software storage (drive directory)
Hardware versus software PKI backup
 The primary means of storing a private key is to use a
Hardware Storage Module (HSM)
Private key protection concerns
Key Escrow

Protecting your key's life cycle is to have the keys

managed by a third party
This third party should be bonded and certified, and
should provide evidence of its best practices
Key escrow advantages and disadvantages
Key Recovery
When recovering a key, balance the need for
security with the ability to restore it quickly so that
users are affected as little as possible
M of N Control
 Where the private key is encrypted, and parts of that key are
given to a specific number of people
 To decrypt the key, a certain number (M) of the larger number
of people (N) must be present to decrypt the private key
 This number should be set in the information security policy,
and will be accordingly enforced by system PKI software and
other practices
Using Multiple Key Pairs

It is possible to use multiple key pairs to secure

data
For example, when configuring an e-mail
application, you can use two separate keys
 One key to encrypt data (to provide data confidentiality)
 One key to sign data (to provide data integrity)
Benefits and drawbacks of multiple key pairs
Planning for PKI

Requirements for a PKI rollout

Create an incremental plan
Security+
Lesson 5
Network Attacks and
Vulnerabilities
Lesson Objectives
Define common attacks, including denial of service,
spoofing, man in the middle, and password
guessing
Identify ways that malicious code (e.g., viruses,
Trojans, logic bombs and worms) affect systems
and networks
Identify social engineering strategies
Identify ways that auditing can help reduce attacks
Network Attack Overview
Common attacks
 Spoofing  Software exploitation
 Denial of service (DOS)  Password guessing
 Distributed denial of  Social engineering
service (DDOS)  Malicious code
 Man in the middle
Protocol Overview
To understand many of the attacks described in this
lesson, review the following protocol concepts
 The TCP initial handshake

 Terminating a TCP session

Protocol Overview

Internet Protocol (IP)

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
Port numbers
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
Spoofing Attacks

Three types of spoofing

 IP spoofing
 ARP spoofing
 DNS spoofing
If you combine these spoofing types, you can spoof
entire hosts and networks
Spoofing and traceback
Protecting against spoofing attacks
Scanning Attacks

Type Description
Ping A host directs a number of ping packets at a
scan collection of hosts on a network. Used to determine
the hosts that exist on a network.
Port A host scans some or all of the TCP and UDP ports
scan on a system to see which ports are open.

War A hacker uses software and a modem to discover

dialing hosts using modems to attach to the network.

War A hacker uses a wireless NIC to see if a wireless

driving network is in the area.

Network A hacker forges custom packets (ICMP, TCP or

mapping UDP) to scan and map networks. If the individual
and/or application is clever enough, it is possible to
map hosts inside of many network firewalls.
Scanning Attacks

Stack fingerprinting and operating system detection

Sequence prediction
Network Mapper (NMap)
Long-term scans
Fragmented ICMP packets and network scanning
Denial-of-Service (DOS) Attacks
The three main purposes of a denial-of-service attack are:
 To crash a server and make it unusable to everyone else
 To assume the identity of the system being crashed
 To install a Trojan or an entire root kit
Flooding
Malformed packets
 Teardrop/Teardrop2
 Ping of Death
 Land attack
 Miscellaneous attacks
Physical denial-of-service attacks
Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDOS) Attacks

A distributed denial-of-service (DDOS) attack

involves several remote systems that cooperate to
wage a coordinated attack that generates an
overwhelming amount of network traffic
A DDOS attack involves the following components
 A controlling application
 An illicit service
 A zombie
 A target
Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDOS)
Attacks (cont’d)
Smurf and Fraggle attacks

Protecting yourself against attacks

Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDOS)
Attacks (cont’d)

Ways to diagnose DOS and DDOS attacks

Mitigating vulnerability and risk
Man-in-the-Middle Attacks
Types
 Password sniffing
 Replay
 Connection termination
 Connection hijacking
 Packet insertion
 Poisoning
Conditions for man-in-the-middle attacks
Packet sniffing and network switches
Connection hijacking
DNS and ARP cache poisoning
Avoiding man-in-the-middle attacks
Profile of an Attack

The coursebook contains a description of a

successful man-in-the-middle attack that involves:
 Scanning
 Sequence prediction
 Network sniffing
 Spoofing
Password-Guessing Attacks

Password guessing involves using various tools to

discover a secret password.
Two techniques are used
 Brute-force attacks
 Dictionary attacks
Software Exploitation
It is possible to exploit software in two ways
 By attacking improperly coded software, creating a bug-based
attack
 By exploiting an opening inadvertently created by a systems
administrator, creating a configuration-related attack
Buffer overflow
Back doors
Errors in coding
Configuration-based attacks
Attacks Against Encryption

Although encryption is a powerful tool, it is not

immune to attacks
Examples of attacks against encryption
 Weak keys
 Birthday attack
 Mathematical attacks
Social Engineering
The use of tricks and disinformation to gain access
to passwords and other sensitive information
 Whereas systems consist of hardware and software, people
are considered network "wetware”
 Social engineering could be called a wetware attack because
it focuses on human weaknesses, not those found in network
hosts
Common strategies to reduce the risk of social
engineering
Components of a virus hoax
Malicious Code
Five types of malicious code are important to
understand for the Security+ exam
 Viruses
 Worms
 Illicit servers
 Trojan horses
 Logic bombs
Repairing infected systems
Avoiding viruses, Trojans and root kits
Logic bombs and how to avoid them
Managing viruses, worms and illicit programs
Auditing
Auditing is the primary means of protecting
yourself against malicious code
Examples of auditing
 Checking password databases regularly (e.g., the Windows
SAM, and the UNIX /etc/passwd and /etc/shadow files)
 Identifying weaknesses in common Internet servers (relaying
in a Sendmail SMTP gateway)
 Scanning systems for vulnerabilities
 Patrolling physical campuses for vulnerabilities
 Identifying areas of information leakage
Necessary information
Unnecessary information
Security+
Lesson 6
Operating System and
Application Hardening
Lesson Objectives
Identify client-side issues related to managing e-
mail, Web, instant messaging, database and file
transfer applications
Identify specific ways to harden operating systems,
including Windows 2003 and Linux
Harden individual applications (i.e., services),
including Web, e-mail, news and DHCP
Security Baselines
Before you can effectively manage your network
and its related systems, you need to create a
security baseline
 This task is the first step to securing your network
You can conduct various types of baselines
 Network traffic
 System (e.g., e-mail or database server)
Purpose of a baseline
Client Security Issues

Although firewalls and intrusion-detection systems

(IDSs) are obligatory in a large enterprise, nothing
can compensate for improperly secured hosts and
applications
Ways to secure clients
 End-user awareness training
 Become aware of client-side scripting vulnerabilities,
including:
JavaScript
ActiveX
Java
Client Security Issues (cont’d)
Controlling code: signing, sandboxing and updates
Cookies
Buffer overflows
Securing e-mail clients
 Spam
 Illicit content
 Viruses and worms
 Sniffing
 E-mail messages and MIME concerns
 Encryption and e-mail
Client Security Issues (cont’d)

Securing Web clients

Securing instant messaging and P2P applications
 File transfer and the 8.3 naming convention
 Additional attacks
 Securing P2P and instant messaging
Server-Side Issues: Application Hardening
When you work with individual services (applications), you
must reduce risk by using the latest stable version of the
service, and must limit unnecessary connections to it
Updates (hotfixes, service packs and patches)
 Update issues
 Uptime concerns
Encryption
 Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)
 Transport Layer Security (TLS)
Jails
Securing e-mail
 Relaying and spam
 Ways to control relaying
Server-Side Issues:
Application Hardening (cont’d)

File sharing and transfer

File sharing and print services
Server Message Block (SMB)
Server-Side Issues:
Application Hardening (cont’d)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Blind FTP
 Anonymous logon
 Limiting FTP access
 FTP Secure (FTPS): SSL-enabled FTP
 Secure Shell (SSH) FTP: S/FTP
Securing Web servers
 Common Gateway Interface (CGI) scripts
 CGI drawbacks
 Coding flaws, configuration issues, and ensuring quality CGI code
 HTTPS with SSL/TLS
 SHTTP
 Do not enable directly listing mode
 Limit connections
Server-Side Issues:
Application Hardening (cont’d)

Securing DNS servers

 DNS poisoning
 Illicit zone transfers
 Securing zone transfers
 Zone signing and public-key encryption
Additional servers
Operating System Hardening
It is not enough to secure the services (i.e., daemons). You
must also secure the operating system running the services.
 Steps to take when securing systems
 Common services to disable by default
 Removing unnecessary services
 Examples
TCP/IP filtering
Internet Connection Firewall settings
Configuring Syskey options
Hiding the user last name
Clearing the page file
Interactive logon
Security+
Lesson 7
Securing Remote Access
Lesson Objectives
Define the functions of the Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol
(PPTP) and Layer 2 Transport Protocol (L2TP)
Configure a Virtual Private Network (VPN)
Compare Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service
(RADIUS), Terminal Access Controller Access Control
System (TACACS), TACACS+ and 802.1x
Define the purpose and function of IPsec
Identify common vulnerabilities in remote access systems
Distinguish between remote access and remote
administration
Configure Secure Shell (SSH)
Remote Access Concepts and Terminology
Remote access is the ability for an organization to
allow users to connect to its network
Many remote access methods are available
Remote access terms
 Connection medium
 Remote access server
 Perimeter
 Topology
 Router/switch
 Firewall
Overview of Remote Access Methods
Many methods exist
 Virtual Private Network (VPN)
 Terminal Access Controller Access Control System
(TACACS) and TACACS+
 Remote Authentication Dial-In Use Service (RADIUS)
 IPsec
 802.1x
 Secure Shell (SSH)
Not strictly a remote access method
Can be used to encrypt protocols during a remote access session
Overview of Remote Access Methods (cont’d)

Authentication, authorization and accounting

When allowing remote access to a network, you
must consider each of the following concepts
 Authentication
 Access control
 Accounting
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)

A Virtual Private Network (VPN) is an encrypted

tunnel that provides secure, dedicated access
between two hosts across an unsecured network
Three types of VPNs
 Workstation to server
 Firewall to firewall
 Workstation to workstation
Virtual Private Networks (cont’d)

In firewall-to-firewall
communication,
hosts must
exchange public
keys
Virtual Private Networks (cont’d)
Tunneling
 Tunneling components
Passenger protocol
Encapsulation protocol
Transport protocol
 Benefits of tunneling
Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP)
 PPTP vs. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
 PPTP and Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) protocol
Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP)
 L2TP elements
 Encryption and L2TP
VPN vulnerabilities
Comparing L2TP and PPTP
TACACS and TACACS+

Terminal Access Controller Access Control System

(TACACS) and TACACS+

TACACS and TACACS+ vulnerabilities

Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service
(RADIUS)

RADIUS is the most popular method for

centralizing remote user access
Mostly meant for dial-up access
A RADIUS system can authenticate various
connections across a public network
(e.g., modem, cable modem, DSL and wireless)
Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service
(RADIUS) (cont’d)
RADIUS models
 Stand-alone
 Distributed

RADIUS terminology
RADIUS benefits
RADIUS vulnerabilities
IPsec
An IETF standard that provides packet-level
encryption, authentication and integrity between
firewalls or between hosts in a LAN
IPsec uses the following
 Authentication Header (AH)
 Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)
Two IPsec modes
 Tunnel
 Transport
Security association (SA) and Internet Key
Exchange (IKE)
IPsec (cont’d)

IPsec authentication options

IPsec vulnerabilities
Perfect Forward Security (PFS)
802.1x
Used in wireless networks to centralize
authentication for wireless network clients
 Traditionally, a wireless client authenticates with a wireless
access point (WAP), which is the wireless equivalent of a
standard Ethernet hub or Layer 2 switch
 The 802.1x standard allows you to connect a WAP to a
centralized server (e.g., a RADIUS server) so that all hosts
are properly authenticated
802.1x authentication process
802.1x drawbacks and vulnerabilities
Remote Administration Methods

Remote administration involves the ability to

control and configure a system or group of systems
Do not confuse remote administration with remote
access, which is the ability to communicate with a
remote network
Remote administration methods include Telnet,
SNMP, SSH, terminal services, Virtual Network
Computing (VNC), PC Anywhere and NetOP
Secure Shell (SSH)
Secure Shell (SSH) is a set of clients and servers designed
to replace clients and servers that traditionally do not
properly authenticate and encrypt network communications
Encrypts connections by default—hosts are authenticated
With additional configuration, can use public keys to
authenticate user-based sessions
SSH components
 SSH: the command-line client, originally intended as a Telnet replacement
 SCP: a noninteractive method for copying files and/or directories between
hosts
 SFTP: used as a secure replacement for unencrypted FTP
Secure Shell (SSH) (cont’d)
SSH and DNS
SSH architecture

Encryption and authentication in SSH

SSH host keys
Authentication methods (public key, keyboard interactive,
password)
Secure Shell (SSH) (cont’d)

SSHv1 vs. SSHv2

 SSHv1 was the original protocol
 SSHv1’s encryption method has been cracked, and is
vulnerable to sniffing attacks
 SSHv2 is the de-facto standard
SSH and port forwarding
 Used to tunnel normally unencrypted protocols
 Ideal for helping secure non-encrypted remote access
sessions
Secure Shell (SSH) (cont’d)
SSH and public-key authentication
 You must generate your own key pair
 Public keys are then exchanged
 You configure your server or account to recognize your
partner’s public key
 When users authenticate, the SSH server checks for a
client’s public key; if the public key is available, the server will
then check to see whether the requested account recognizes
the key
 If the public key is recognized, authentication takes place
without any passwords crossing the network
Automating authentication
SSH vulnerabilities
Security+
Lesson 8
Wireless Network
Security
Lesson Objectives
Identify wireless network components and
topologies
Define methods for securing wireless networks,
including Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) and
802.1x
Define Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS)
Define the purpose of the Wireless Access Protocol
(WAP)
Conduct site surveys to identify and correct
common wireless networking vulnerabilities
Wireless Network Technologies

Wireless networks
 Popular
 Convenient
 Often improperly configured, used or placed on the network
Wireless networking media
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
Wireless Network Technologies ( cont’d)
Wireless networking modes
Wireless Network Technologies ( cont’d)
Wireless access points (WAPs)
 Wireless cells
 Types of authentication in wireless networks
Open System Authentication (OSA)
Shared Key Authentication (SKA)
Basic Service Set Identifier (BSSID)
Service Set Identifier (SSID)
WAP beacon
Host association
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)

Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) provides a

uniform set of communication standards for cellular
phones and other mobile wireless equipment
 Uniform scripting standards
 Uniform encryption standards, via the Wireless Transport
Layer Security (WTLS) protocol
WTLS benefits
Languages used in WAP
Wireless Security Vulnerabilities

Wireless networks often suffer from the following

problems
 Cleartext transmission
 Weak access control
 Unauthorized WAPs
 Weak and/or flawed encryption
 Slow traffic, due to encryption
 War driving
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
Wireless networks do not encrypt information by
default
WEP encrypts all data packets sent between all
wireless clients and the wireless access point
(WAP)
Standard WEP encryption levels are 40 bits;
however, many vendors now supply RC4-based
128-bit and 256-bit encryption
The 128-bit encryption is above standard, but is
considered the acceptable minimum for business
networks
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) ( cont’d)
When using WEP, you
can:
 Manually enter a WEP key
 Use a passphrase (as
shown)
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) ( cont’d)
WEP problems and vulnerabilities
 WEP data encryption issues

Attacking the authentication sequence

 WEP data encryption issues
MAC Address Filtering

Where a WAP allows only certain MAC addresses

Policies
 Exclude all by default, then allow only listed clients
 Include all by default, then exclude listed clients
MAC Address Filtering (cont’d)

MAC address spoofing

Relatively trivial process
Problems with WTLS
Remember the following
 WTLS applies only to devices that use the Wireless
Application Protocol (WAP)
 WTLS is not used for standard network connections (e.g.,
Ethernet connections)
 WEP is for Ethernet connections
“GAP in the WAP”
 When wireless information is placed onto a standard network
via a gateway, it must be decrypted from WTLS then re-
encrypted into standard PKI solution, such as SSL or TLS
 When WTLS traffic is first decrypted, it is possible to sniff
connections and obtain sensitive information
Solutions for Wireless Network Vulnerabilities

Strong encryption
Strong authentication via 802.1x
Physical and configuration solutions
Site Surveys

Two types of site surveys

 Authorized
Used to determine suitability of wireless networks
Searches for sources of interference
Audits for rogue wireless traffic
Site surveys can occur before and after implementation
 Unauthorized
War driving
War walking
Unauthorized Site Surveys:
War Driving/War Walking
In war driving, an individual obtains wireless sniffing software, installs it (usually)
on a notebook computer, and either drives (or walks) through areas where
wireless networks are suspected to exist
Security+
Lesson 9
Security Topologies and
Infrastructure Security
Lesson Objectives
Identify firewall security topologies and practices
(e.g., DMZ, intranet, extranet, NAT)
Identify ways to harden networks
Identify security concerns for various media types,
including coaxial, shielded twisted-pair and fiber-
optic cable, and removable media
Identify security concerns for various devices,
including firewalls, routers, switches,
telecommunications equipment and VPNs
Apply physical security concepts to the network
Firewall Overview
In computer networking, a network firewall acts as a barrier
against potential malicious activity, while still allowing a
door for authorized users to communicate between your
secured network and another network
Typical firewall functions
 Network perimeter establishment
 Traffic filtering
 Virus filtering
 Network Address Translation (NAT)
 Logging
 Tunneling
 Policy establishment
Security Topologies

After you have properly hardened the network, you

can begin to allow selective access to it
 Allow selective access by creating a specific security zone,
which is a specially designated grouping of services and
computers
Types of Security Zones

A demilitarized zone (DMZ)

A service network
An intranet
An extranet
Creating a Virtual LAN (VLAN)
A virtual LAN (VLAN) is a logical grouping of hosts,
made possible by a network switch and most newer
routers
VLANs are useful in the following ways
 They improve security: you can isolate systems, for example,
that are experiencing security problems
 They help improve performance
 They ease administration
Network Address Translation (NAT)
NAT is the practice of hiding internal IP addresses from the
external network.
Three ways to provide true NAT
 Configure masquerading on a packet-filtering firewall
 Configure a circuit-level gateway
 Use a proxy server to conduct requests on behalf of internal hosts
RFC 1918 outlines the addresses that the IANA recommends
using for internal address schemes
10.0.0.0/8
172.16.0.0/12
192.168.0.0/16
 RFC 1918 addresses will never be routed over the Internet
 These addresses are internally routable, however
Network Address Translation (NAT) (cont’d)

NAT considerations
1 9 2 .1 6 8 .3 7 .2 1 9 2 .1 6 8 .3 7 .3

192.168.37.0/16

Masquerading
NAT benefits
1 9 2 .1 6 8 .3 7 .1
1 9 2 .1 6 8 .3 7 .4 1 9 2 .1 6 8 .3 7 .5

3 4 .0 9 .4 5 .1 /8

T h e fir e w a lls tr a n s la te a d d r e s s e s
fr o m th e 1 9 2 .1 6 8 .3 7 .0 /1 6 a n d
1 0 .5 .7 .0 /8 n e tw o r k s in to In te r n e t-
a d d r e s s a b le fo r m .
In tern et

2 0 7 .1 9 .1 9 9 .1 /2 4

1 0 .5 .7 .2 1 0 .5 .7 .3

1 0 .5 .7 .1

10.5.7.0/8

1 0 .5 .7 .5
1 0 .5 .7 .4
Types of Bastion Hosts

Dual-homed bastion hosts

Types of Bastion Hosts (cont’d)

Triple-homed bastion host

Types of Bastion Hosts (cont’d)
Alternative DMZ configuration

Internal firewalls
Traffic Control Methods

Packet filters
 Packet filter drawbacks
 Stateful multilayer inspection
 Popular packet-filtering products
Proxy servers
 Application-level proxy
 Circuit-level proxy
 Advantages and disadvantages of circuit-level proxies
Traffic Control Methods (cont’d)
1 9 2 .1 6 8 .3 7 .2 1 9 2 .1 6 8 .3 7 .3

You must configure 192.168.37.0/16

a host to work with P o rt 3128

a proxy server 1 9 2 .1 6 8 .3 7 .4 1 9 2 .1 6 8 .3 7 .5

The host's effective T h e p r o x y r e c e iv e s r e q u e s ts a t Pro x y S e rve r

IP address is
p o r t 3 1 2 8 fr o m th e 1 9 2 .1 6 8 .3 7 .0 /
1 6 n e tw o r k a n d fo r w a r d s th e
r e q u e s ts o n to th e In te r n e t

the same as
the proxy server
In tern et
Traffic Control Methods (cont’d)
Recommending a proxy-oriented firewall
Proxy server advantages and features
 Authentication
 Logging and alarming
 Caching
 Fewer rules
Reverse proxies and proxy arrays (cascading
proxies)
Proxy server drawbacks
 Client configuration
 Bandwidth issues
Configuring Firewalls
Default firewall stances
 Default open: Allows all traffic by default. You add rules to
block certain types of traffic.
 Default closed: Allows no traffic at all by default. You add
rules to allow only certain types of traffic.
Configuring an ACL
 Source address
 Source port
 Destination address
 Destination port
 Action
Network Hardening
Securing the perimeter
 Audit the modem bank
 Identify illicit wireless networks
 Make sure that VPN traffic goes through the firewall
Upgrading network operating system hardware, software
and firmware
Enabling and disabling services and protocols
Improving router security
 Password-protect and authenticate automatic updates
 Obtain the latest operating system updates
 Consider the router’s susceptibility to denial-of-service attacks
 Disable unnecessary protocols
 Consider updates
 Restrict physical access to the router
Network Security Concerns
Network hosts
 Servers
 Workstations
 Mobile devices
Network connectivity devices
 Routers
 Switches
 WAPS and other wireless equipment
 Firewalls
Remote access devices
Convergence issues
Misuse of legitimate equipment
Physical Security Concerns
Your job as a security professional does not end
with network security
Ensuring proper access to network resources also
includes taking steps to physically secure your
organization's buildings and all server rooms and
wiring closets
Ensuring access control
Access control and social engineering
Physical barriers
Environmental changes
Location of wireless cells
Physical Security Concerns (cont’d)

Attacks, eavesdropping and shielding

 Radio frequency interference
 Electromagnetic interference
 Electromagnetic pulse (EMP)
 Crosstalk
 Attenuation
Shielding methods
 Transient Electromagnetic Pulse Emanation Standard
(TEMPEST)
 Faraday cage
Physical Security Concerns (cont’d)
Securing removable media
 Tape drives
 Hard drives
 CD-R and CD-RW drives
 Additional USB and FireWire devices
 Smart card readers
 Additional media
Controlling environment
 Humidity controls
 Ventilation
 Power issues
Physical Security Concerns (cont’d)
Fire detection and suppression
 When securing equipment against fire, you need fire-detection equipment,
as well as a way to suppress any fire that is detected
Smoke detectors and air sniffers
Flame and heat detectors
Fire suppression
 Wet pipe
 Dry pipe
 Chemical
Halon
Carbon dioxide
FM-200 (Heptafluoropropane)
IG-541 (Inergen)
FE-13 (Trifluromethane)
Cabling and Network Security

Coaxial cable
Common coax types (RG-8, RG-58)
Coaxial cable and termination
Security concerns for coaxial cable
Twisted-Pair Cable

Has two or more paired wires

Two different types: shielded twisted pair and
unshielded twisted pair
 Better topology
 UTP versus STP
 Twisted-pair ratings
Security Concerns for UTP/STP Cable

Plenum cabling
Interference
Crossover cables
Wiretapping
Fiber-Optic Cable
Made of a glass or plastic cylinder enclosed in a
tube, called cladding
An insulating sheath covers the core and cladding
Two modes
 Single-mode
 Multimode
Connector types
Benefits of fiber-optic cable
 Resistant to EMI and RFI
 Resistant to wiretapping
Drawbacks of fiber-optic cable
Protecting the Network
Against Common Physical Attacks
Consider the following issues
 False ceilings
 Exposed communication lines
 Exposed jacks
 Exposed heating/cooling ducts
 Doors with exposed hinges
 Inadequate lighting
 Lack of surveillance
 Poor lock quality
Not even a high-quality password can thwart certain
physical attacks
Security+
Lesson 10
Risk Analysis, Intrusion
Detection and Business
Continuity
Lesson Objectives
Define risk identification concepts
Distinguish between types of intrusion detection
Identify the purpose and usefulness of a honey pot
Implement an incident response policy
Identify key forensics issues, including chain of
custody, collection of evidence and preservation of
evidence
Determine disaster recovery steps
Distinguish between disaster recovery and
business continuity
Risk Identification
A risk assessment allows you to locate resources
and determine the likelihood of a successful attack
Sometimes called a “gap analysis”
Consider the following terms
 Threat
 Vulnerability
 Risk
 Return on investment
Risk Assessment Steps
Asset identification
 Consider business concerns
 Consider potential for internal and external attacks
Threat identification
 Common techniques used in man-made attacks
Identifying and eliminating vulnerabilities: risk
assessment
 Vulnerability scanners
 Updates
 Penetration-testing tools
 Managing the process of eliminating vulnerabilities
Risk Assessment Steps
System configuration monitoring tools
Calculating loss expectancy
 Determining specific losses for your risk assessment
Justifying cost
Intrusion Detection
Basic definition
 The real-time monitoring of network activity behind the firewall
 Detects and logs network and/or host-based traffic
Intrusion-detection strategies
 Signature detection
 Anomaly detection
Typical actions taken by an IDS
IDS application types
 Host-based
 Network-based
Network-Based Intrusion Detection
Used to identify traffic on the network
A network-based IDS scans the entire network, then
issues alerts when certain thresholds are exceeded
 Passive detection versus active detection
 Benefits and drawbacks
 Switched networks and network-based IDS applications
Host-Based Intrusion Detection
Management structure
Agent
Encrypted and
authenticated connection

Router
Agent
Reporting System

Encrypted and
authenticated connections
IBM AS/400
Agent

Manager
SQL Server
Encrypted and Agent
authenticated connection

Reporting system

File Server
Host-Based Intrusion Detection ( cont’d)
Consider the following
 Active versus passive host-based IDS
 Manager-to-agent communication
 Strengths and limitations of host-based IDS applications
 Monitoring specific services
IDS Signatures and Rules
As with antivirus applications and vulnerability
scanners, an IDS application requires a current
signature database
Both network and host-based IDS applications use
a signature database
 Rules
 Actions
Securing intrusion-detection devices and
applications
 Harden the IDS application and/or the operating system
 Physically secure the system
Choosing the Correct IDS
Each type of IDS application has its own place
Problem Ideal IDS
Choice
DOS attacks involving Network-based IDS.
traffic floods
emanating from the
internal network
Brute-force attacks on Both a network-based and host-
an e-mail server based IDS will work. However, a
host-based IDS will give you more
account.
granular information about a
specific e-mail server.

NICs in promiscuous Network-based IDS.

mode

Presence of illicit servers Network-based IDS.

False Positives and False Negatives
A false positive occurs when the IDS mistakes
legitimate traffic for illegitimate traffic
 Caused by old signature databases
 Caused by low thresholds
A false negative is whenever an IDS does not detect
an intrusion, even though one is occurring
 Causes
The IDS is on a switched network
Improper configuration
DOS/DDOS attacks meant to mask other illegitimate traffic
Encrypted traffic
IDS Software
Computer Associates eTrust Intrusion Detection,
formerly SessionWall (www.my-etrust.com)
Snort (www.snort.org)
Intruder Alert (www.symantec.com)
ISS RealSecure (www.iss.net)
Network Flight Recorder (www.nfr.com)
Honey Pots
An attractive target placed in open view of attackers
Intended to divert the attention of a hacker from
your system's resources and allow for alerting
In most cases, the best location for a honey pot is
in the DMZ, where it can be used to distract hackers
from real resources
Often, a honey pot will spoof ARP requests to
imitate multiple hosts
Honeypot components
Elements of an Incident Response Policy
Description of the incident response team
Description of specific actions to take
Clear chain of authority
 Designate a leader of your incident response team
 Document the reporting structure
 Educate all concerned parties about your reporting structure
 Need to know
Documentation
The aftermath: identifying and correcting issues
Forensics
Collecting evidence
 Evidence storage
 Methods for collecting information
Creating images of hard drives
Documenting connections made to the system using applications
such as netstat, nbtstat, smbstatus and lsof
Obtaining a list of processes running on the system
Creating screen captures of the system to prove the existence of an
attack or evidence of damage
Determining files that have been deleted, and recreating them if
possible
Forensics (cont’d)
Chain of custody
 Be able to answer the following questions
Where was this evidence stored?
Who handled the evidence after it was stored?
Who guarded the evidence?
How was the evidence secured from tampering?
 Preservation of evidence
Using forensic evidence
 Internal litigants
 Law enforcement
 Insurance companies
Forensic tools
Disaster Recovery
Basic definition
 Disaster recovery focuses on creating plans that allow you to
recover from short-term, catastrophic problems and return
business to normal
Creating a disaster recovery plan
 Business impact analysis (BIA)
 Maximum tolerable downtime (MTD)
 Backups and disaster recovery: off-site storage
Transportation security
Off-site storage security
 Secure recovery: alternative sites
Hot, warm and cold sites
Business Continuity
Basic definition
 Takes a more holistic approach than disaster recovery, which
means that it focuses on returning the entire business to
normal operations
 You cope with long-term business operation concerns
Utilities
Business Continuity (cont’d)
High-availability and fault tolerance
 Create redundant sites
 Configure individual systems so that they have
redundant sub-elements
RAID (e.g., RAID 5 shown below)

Disk 1 Disk 2 Disk 3

File 1

File 2

File 3

Parity
Backups and Business Continuity
RAID provides fault tolerance and redundancy. It
does not provide a dedicated data backup service.
For the Security+ exam, you will need to understand
the following backup methods
 Full backup
 Differential backup
 Incremental backup
Media reuse and backup methods
Benefits and drawbacks of full, differential and
incremental backups
Backup Strategies
Understand the following strategies
 Full backup nightly
 Full and differential backups
 Full and incremental backups
 Father/son/grandfather
Backup verification
 An unverified backup is almost the same as having no backup
at all
 Consider the following strategies
Verifying archive existence
Listing contents of the archive
Performing a test backup
Verifying archive integrity (e.g., using MD5sum)
Backup strategies (cont’d)
Backup storage issues
 Sunlight
 Excessive heat or cold
 Improper humidity
 Magnetic fields
Backup and encryption
Security+
Lesson 11
Security Policy
Management
Lesson Objectives
Define components of a security policy, including
acceptable use and HR policy
Define privilege management concepts
Train company employees to work securely
Document company and network security plans
Security Policy
Security
policy
elements
Security Policy (cont’d)
Need to know
Acceptable use and code of ethics
 Addresses the ways that employees can use equipment and
services provided by the company
 Publicizing the policy
Due care versus due diligence
Separation of duties
 IT workers should not be responsible for securing the
services they provide. It can be a direct conflict of interest.
Password management
Security Policy (cont’d)
Vendor relations
 Workers may leave the company with vital information
 Document all contacts
 The Service Level Agreement (SLA)
 Store all SLAs for later reference
Sensitive data disposal
 Hard copy
 Servers and workstations
 Network connectivity equipment
 Destroying logs
Human Resources Policies
Hiring
 Consider the following hiring procedures
Orientation
Informing IT
Assigning user permissions
Verifying correct privileges
Emphasize the creation of specific procedures and policies to new
hires
Termination
 Revoking user rights
 Conducting exit interviews
 Forcibly logging off terminated user(s)
 Providing an escort for the user, if necessary
Writing a Specific Policy
The following elements are commonly found
 Policy name
 Approval date
 Active date
 Policies replaced
 Policies directly affected
 Scope
 Purpose
 Additional notes
 Responsible individuals
Privilege Management
Issues to consider
 Users, groups and roles
 Single sign-on
 Centralized versus decentralized
 MAC/DAC/RBAC issues
Privilege auditing, network use and improper
escalation
Training Secure Practices
Education
 Awareness training
 Communication and escalation training
 Software education
 IT training
Opportunities for education
Information resources
 Hard copy
 Online
Sample resources
Documentation
IT standards and guidelines
 Examples
Operating system installation
Equipment replacement
Software updates
Auditing
Additional policies exist
Documenting systems architecture
 Documenting network architecture
 Logs and inventories
Keeping logs
 Log size
 Impact of logging
Classification and Notification
Classification levels: Unclassified, Confidential,
Secret and Top Secret
 Ensure that all documents notify readers about their
classification level
 Document that all employees are aware of their current
security level
Change management
 Change documentation and compliance
 Change-management issues
Classification and Notification (cont’d)

Creating change
documentation
Documents can
include various
elements, including
a description of
the host, the reason
for the change, and
detailed information
about the change
itself
Retention and Storage Issues
Documentation will accrue through time. You
eventually must answer the following questions, so
write them into your security policy.
 How long should old network documentation (e.g., network
maps) be stored?
 When should procedures documents be revised?
 How should the department dispose of old documents?