THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON

Includes bones of the:

Limbs (Upper and Lower limbs),

pectoral girdles , and

pelvic girdles.

they are attached to the axial skeleton.

The pectoral (shoulder) girdles attach the upper limbs to

the body trunk, While pelvic girdle secures the lower limbs.
Although the bones of the upper and lower limbs differ in

their functions and mobility, they have the same fundamental

plan:

Each limb is composed of three major segments connected

by movable joints.

The appendicular skeleton enables us to carry out the

movements typical of our freewheeling and manipulative

lifestyle.
 1. The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
is composed of four bones:
two clavicles (collarbones) anteriorly, and
two scapulae (shoulder blades) posteriorly.

It is an incomplete ring.

It is open in the back between the scapulae, and

the sternum separates its bones in front.

supports the upper limbs and is an attachment for
several muscles that move them.
 Clavicles (Collar Bones)
are slender, rod-like bones with elongated S-shapes.

Located at the base of the neck.

they run horizontally between the manubrium and

the scapulae.
The sternal (or medial) ends of the clavicles
articulate with the manubrium, and
the acromial (or lateral) ends join processes of the
scapulae.
The clavicles support the freely movable scapulae, to hold
the shoulders in place.
They also provide attachments for muscles of the upper
limbs, chest, and back.
It is structurally weak because of its elongated double
curve.
If compressed lengthwise due to abnormal pressure on the
shoulder, it is likely to fracture.
 Scapulae (shoulder “blade”)
are broad, somewhat triangular bones located on either
side of the upper back.
They have flat bodies with concave anterior surfaces.
The posterior surface of each scapula is divided into
unequal portions by a spine.
Above the spine is the supraspinous fossa, and
below the spine is the infraspinous fossa.
The spine leads to an acromion process that forms the tip of
the shoulder.
The acromion process articulates with the clavicle and
provides attachments for muscles of the upper limb and chest
muscles.
On the lateral surface of the scapula between the processes
is a depression called the glenoid cavity (glenoid fossa of the
scapula).
It articulates with the head of the arm bone (humerus).
The scapula has three borders.
The superior border- is on the superior edge.
The axillary, or lateral border- is directed toward the upper
limb.
The vertebral, or medial border- is closest to the vertebral
column.
 2. The Upper Limb
The bones of the upper limb form the framework of:

the arm,

forearm, and

hand.

They also provide attachments for muscles and interact with

muscles to move limb parts.

Upper limb bones include:
 humerus (2),

 radius (2),

 ulna (2),

 carpals-wrist bones (16),

Metacarpals-palm bones (10), and

Phalanges-finger bones (28)

 Arm (Humerus)
is a long bone that extends from the scapula to the elbow.
At its upper end is a smooth, rounded head that fits into the
glenoid cavity of the scapula.
 below the head are two processes—a greater tubercle on
the lateral side and a lesser tubercle on the anterior side.
These tubercles provide attachments for muscles that move
the upper limb at the shoulder.
Between them is a narrow furrow, the intertubercular
groove, through which a tendon passes from a muscle
in the arm (biceps brachii) to the shoulder.
The narrow depression along the lower margin of the
head that separates it from the tubercles is called the
anatomical neck.
below the head and the tubercles of the humerus is a
tapering region called the surgical neck, so named
because fractures commonly occur there.
Near the middle (centeral) of the bony shaft on the
lateral side is a rough V-shaped area (depression) called the
deltoid tuberosity.
It provides an attachment for the muscle (deltoid) that
raises the upper limb horizontally to the side.
At the lower end of the humerus are two smooth

condyles—a capitulum on the lateral side and a trochlea

on the medial side.
The capitulum articulates with the radius at the elbow,
Above the condyles on either side are epicondyles,

which provide attachments for muscles and ligaments

of the elbow.
Between the epicondyles anteriorly is a depression,
the coronoid fossa, that receives a process of the ulna
(coronoid process) when the elbow bends.
 Another depression on the posterior surface, the
olecranon fossa, receives an olecranon process when
the elbow straightens.
 Forearm or antebrachium
Two parallel long bones, the radius and the ulna, form the
skeleton of the forearm.
Their proximal ends articulate with the humerus,
and their distal ends form joints with bones of the wrist.
The radius and ulna articulate with each other both
proximally and distally at small radioulnar joints,and
they are connected along their entire length by a flat,
flexible ligament, the interosseous membrane.
 Radius
located on the thumb side of the forearm.

 is somewhat shorter than the ulna.

The radius extends from the elbow to the wrist.

and crosses over the ulna when the hand is turned so

that the palm faces backward.
A thick, disclike head at the upper end of the radius

articulates with the capitulum of the humerus and a notch

of the ulna (radial notch).
On the radial shaft just below the head is a process
called the radial tuberosity.
It is an attachment for a muscle (biceps brachii) that
bends the upper limb at the elbow.
At the distal end of the radius, a lateral styloid
process provides attachments for ligaments of the
wrist.
 Ulna
It is longer than the radius and overlaps at the end of the
humerus posteriorly.
At its proximal end, the ulna has an opening, the trochlear
notch (semilunar notch), that articulates with the trochlea of
the humerus.
 A process lies on either side of this notch.
The olecranon process, located above the trochlear notch,
provides an attachment for the muscle (triceps brachii) that
straightens the upper limb at the elbow.
 Hand
The skeleton of the hand includes the bones of the
carpus (wrist);
the bones of the metacarpus (palm); and
the phalanges (bones of the fingers).
Summary
 The Lower Limb
The lower limbs carry the entire weight of the erect body.
Thus, the bones of the lower limbs are thicker and stronger
than bones of the upper limbs.
The three segments of each lower limb are:
 the thigh,
the leg, and
the foot.
The bones of the lower limb include :
a femur,
a tibia,
a fibula,
tarsals,
metatarsals, and
phalanges .
 The Thigh bone (Femur)
is the largest, longest, strongest bone in the body.
and extends from the hip to the knee.
A large, rounded head at its proximal end projects
medially into the acetabulum of the hip bone.
On the head, a pit called the fovea capitis marks the
attachment of a ligament to secure the femur in the
acetabulum.
The neck is the weakest part of the femur and

 is often fractured.

 At the junction of the shaft and neck are:

 the lateral greater trochanter and

posteromedial lesser trochanter.

These projections serve as sites of attachment for thigh

and buttock muscles.
The two trochanters are connected by :

the intertrochanteric line anteriorly and

Inferior to the intertrochanteric crest on the
posterior shaft is the gluteal tuberosity, which blends
into a long vertical ridge, the linea aspera (rough
line”) inferiorly.
 Distally, the linea aspera diverges, forming the
medial and lateral supracondylar lines.
All of these markings are sites of muscle
attachment.
On the posterior surface in the middle third of the shaft is a

longitudinal crest called the linea aspera.

It is an attachment for several muscles.

At the distal end of the femur: two rounded processes,

the lateral and medial condyles, that articulate with the tibia of the

leg.
A patella also articulates with the femur on its distal anterior surface.

 On the medial surface at its distal end is a prominent medial

epicondyle, and on the lateral surface is a lateral epicondyle.

These projections provide attachments for muscles and ligaments.
 patella (Knee cap)
is a triangular sesamoid bone enclosed in the tendon that
secures the anterior thigh muscles to the tibia.
 It protects the knee joint anteriorly and improves the force
of the thigh muscles acting across the knee.
 The Leg
Two parallel bones, the tibia and fibula, form the skeleton of
the leg.
Is the region of the lower limb between the knee and the
ankle.
These two bones are connected by interosseous membrane
and articulate with each other both proximally and distally.
However, unlike the joints between the radius and ulna of the
forearm, the tibiofibular joints of the leg allow no movement.
The bones of the leg thus form a less flexible but
stronger and more stable limb than those of the forearm.
The medial tibia articulates proximally with the femur
to form the modified hinge joint of the knee and
distally with the talus bone of the foot at the ankle.

The fibula, by contrast, does not contribute to the knee

joint and merely helps stabilize the ankle joint.

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 Tibia, or Shin bone
 is the larger of the two leg bones located on the
medial side.
Its proximal end is expanded into medial and lateral
condyles, which are concave and articulate with the
condyles of the femur.
Below the condyles, on the anterior surface, is

a process called the tibial tuberosity, which provides

an attachment for the patellar ligament.
At its distal end, the tibia expands to form a
prominence on the inner ankle called the medial
malleolus, an attachment for ligaments.
 On its lateral side is a depression that articulates
with the fibula.
The inferior surface of the tibia’s distal end
articulates with a large bone (the talus) in the ankle.
 Fibula
is a sticklike bone with slightly expanded ends.
It articulates proximally and distally with the lateral
aspects of the tibia.
 Its proximal end is its head;
its distal end is the lateral malleolus that articulates with
the talus.
The fibula does not bear weight, but several muscles
originate from it.
 Foot
The skeleton of the foot includes the bones of:
 the tarsus, or ankle bones,
the metatarsus, and
the phalanges, or toe bones.
The foot has two important functions:
It supports our body weight, and
it acts as a lever to propel the body forward when we
walk and run.
 Tarsus
is made up of seven tarsal bones that form the posterior
half of the foot.
 It corresponds to the carpus of the hand.

 Body weight is carried primarily by the two largest, most

posterior tarsals:
the talus ( “ankle”), which articulates with the tibia and
fibula superiorly, and
the strong calcaneus “heel bone”), which forms the heel
of the foot and carries the talus on its superior surface.
The largest of the tarsals, the calcaneus or heel
bone, is below the talus where it projects backward to
form the base of the heel.
The calcaneus helps to support body weight and
provides an attachment for muscles that move the
foot=the calcaneal tuberosity.
The remaining tarsals are the:
lateral cuboid,
 medial navicular, and
 anterior medial cuneiform,
intermediate cuneiform, and
lateral cuneiform bones.

 The cuboid and cuneiform bones articulate with

the metatarsal bones anteriorly.
 metatarsus
consists of five elongated metatarsal bones, which
articulate with the tarsus.
hey are numbered 1 to 5, beginning on the medial
(great toe) side of the foot.
The arrangement of the metatarsals is more parallel
than that of the metacarpals of the hands.
Distally, where the metatarsals articulate with the
proximal phalanges of the toes, the enlarged head of the
 Phalanges (Toes)
The 14 phalanges of the toes are smaller than those
of the fingers.
But their general structure and arrangement are the
same.
There are three phalanges in each digit except for
the great toe, the hallux.
The hallux has only two, proximal and distal.
Summary