Chapter 8 : Temporary Construction

Scaffolding and its Types

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 SCAFFOLDING
• Scaffolding, a.k.a., scaffold or staging, is a temporary structure that is
typically made from metal poles and wood planks and used to support
construction workers, inspectors, cleaners, and others who need to work at
height.
• Benefits:
– Access : Scaffolding can allow unhindered, stable access to almost any area of a structure.
– Balance: Scaffolds put workers on a firm footing, giving them the ability to balance
themselves in different positions while working.
– Ease of Construction: Scaffolding is relatively easy to assemble and disassemble, and can
be put up and taken down fairly fast.
– Long Lasting: Most scaffolds can last for a very long time, whether they’re made from
wood or from streel.
– Safety: Safety is one of the most significant advantages of scaffolding, since it gives
workers a stable platform for their work.
– Serves as a bridge: A number of construction activities require workers to take long and
winding routes to reach certain locations on the job site, which is an enormous waste of
time.

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 SCAFFOLDING
Dangers:
Defects: Scaffolding-related accidents are often caused by faulty
scaffolding. Some examples of defects include compromised steel
tubing is compromised or screws not lining up as they should.
Falling Objects: Falling objects like tools, construction materials,
or debris are a common cause of injury for those working on staging.
To avoid injuries associated with falling objects, a best practice is to
provide a cover for each level of scaffolding.
Weather. It can be extremely dangerous to work at height on a
partially-constructed building when the weather is changing. Rain or
snow can make the planking slippery, and temperature fluctuations
can compromise attachment points and cause planks to loosen, crack,
and fail.
Ignoring safety standards. Numerous other factors can lead to
serious and fatal accidents, including overloading scaffolding and
placing scaffolding too close to hazardous energy sources .
Inadequate or weak planking. Scaffolding for all types of
work must have sturdy planking for worker safety. Fall risks can
result from weakened or inadequate scaffolding supports, posts, mast
climbers, pump jacks, and other mechanisms. 3
 SCAFFOLDING
Uses:
Cleaning: Workers commonly can stand on scaffolding to clean windows and other parts of skyrise buildings.
Construction:
Scaffolding can be crucial for construction, since it allows workers to stand at height on a stable
surface. This is especially true for skyscrapers and other high rise structures.
Industrial Inspections:
Inspections are one of the top uses of scaffolding, since scaffolding allows inspectors to reach areas
they couldn’t otherwise access in order to perform visual inspections or other kinds of NDT testing.
Maintenance:
Inspections are typically the first step in a maintenance process, since they uncover areas that may
require maintenance. After inspectors find these areas, maintenance workers will address those
defects by standing on scaffolding to perform their work.
•Art Installations
•Concert Stages
•Exhibition stands
•Granstand seating
•Observation Towers
•Shoring
•Ski ramps
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 Types of Scaffolding
1. Single Scaffolding
2. Double Scaffolding
3. Cantilever Scaffolding
4. Suspended Scaffolding
5. Trestle Scaffolding
6. Steel Scaffolding
7. Patented Scaffolding

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 Single Scaffolding
Generally used for brick masonry and also known as brick layer’s scaffolding.
Consists of standards, ledgers, putlogs generally parallel to the wall at a distance
of about 1.2m.
Distance between standards is about 2 to 2.5m.
Ledgers connect the standards at a vertical interval of 1.2m -1.5m.
Putlogs are taken out from the hole left in the wall to one end of the ledgers.
Putlogs are placed at an interval of 1.2 to 1.5m.

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Single Scaffolding

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 Double Scaffolding
• Generally used for stone masonry a.k.a.
mason’s scaffolding.
• In stone walls, it is hard to make holes in the
wall to support putlogs. So, two rows of
scaffolding is constructed to make it strong
• The first row is 20 – 30 cm away from the
wall and the other one is 1m away from the
first row.
• Then putlogs are placed which are supported
by the both frames. To make it more strong
rakers and cross braces are provided.
• This is also called as independent
scaffolding.

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 Cantilever Scaffolding
Standards are supported on series of needles
and these needles are taken out through
holes in the wall – single frame type
scaffolding.
In the other type needles are strutted inside
the floors through the openings and this is
called independent or double frame type
scaffolding.
Care should be taken while construction of
cantilever scaffolding.
Generally, under conditions such as :
When the ground does not have the capacity
to support standards,
When the Ground near the wall is to be free
from traffic,
When upper part of the wall is under
construction.
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 Suspended Scaffolding
The working platform is suspended from
roofs with the help of wire ropes or chains
etc., it can be raised or lowered to our
required level.
This type of scaffolding is used for repair
works, pointing, paintings etc..

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 Trestle Scaffolding
The working platform is supported on a
movable tripods or ladders.
Generally used for work inside the room,
such as paintings, repairs, etc upto a height
of 5m

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 Steel Scaffolding
Steel Scaffolding is constructed by steel
tubes which are fixed together by steel
couplers or fittings.
It is very easy to construct or dismantle. It
has greater strength,greater durability and
higher fire resistance.
It is not economical but will give more
safety for workers, so used extensively
nowadays.

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 Patented Scaffolding
Made up of steel but these are equipped
with special couplings and frames etc., these
are readymade scaffoldings which are
available in the market.
In this type of scaffolding working platform
is arranged on brackets which can be
adjustable to our required label.

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Formwork for excavation and Trenches
• Temporary Mold used to form concrete into structural
shapes(beams, columns, slabs, shells) for building.
• Formwork can be of timber, steel, plastic, or fiberglass.
• The inside surface is coated with a bond breaker (plastic or oil)
to keep the concrete from sticking to the mold.
• Usually , when the concrete has gained enough strength, the
formwork is removed, although in some cases, it may be left to
stay in place as it is (permanent formwork)

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 Requirements of Good Formwork
1. It should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead and live loads.
2. It should be rigidly constructed and efficiently propped and braced both
horizontally and vertically, to retain its shape.
3. The joints in the formwork should be tight against leakage of cement grout.
4. Construction of formwork should permit removal of various parts in desired
sequences without damage to the concrete.
5. The material of the formwork should be cheap, readily available, and should
be suitable for reuse.
6. The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line, and levels should
have a plane surface.
7. It should be as light as possible.
8. The material of the formwork should not warp or get distorted when
exposed to the elements.
9. It should rest on a firm base.

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 Types of Formwork in Construction
Timber Formwork
Steel Formwork
Plywood Formwork
Fabric Formwork
Aluminum Formwork
Plastic Formwork
Tunnel Formwork

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 Timber Formwork
Most popular formwork ,since it offers an onsite fabrication for the required
shape and size of concrete. However, for larger constructions, timber
formwork is very time consuming.
It has less life than other formwork.
It is typically cheaper than aluminum, steel, or aluminium formwork when used
for comparably smaller works.
Characteristics:
Should be easily workable
Should be free from termite attacks
Should be lightweight
Formwork should be well seasoned.
Advantages:
Easy to form in any size, height, or shape.
Economical for smaller projects
Timber formwork can be easily made using locally available timber
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Timber Formwork

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Timber Formwork

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 Plywood Formwork
It is re-molded,resin-bonded sheets attached to timber frames to create panels of
the most suitable sizes.
Are usually strong,flexible,and simple to handle.
It has a short life, and the cost is relatively less compared to timber formwork if
relatively large-sized panels are used.
Provides relatively greater number of reuses in comparison with timber
formwork.

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 Fabric Formwork
Provides highly sophisticated shapes and large construction sizes.
Fabric formwork comes in handy in developing fantastic concrete structures with
greater flexibility and various shapes.

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 Aluminum Formwork
Due to less density of aluminum than steel’s, it is relatively lighter than steel.
It is super economical it there are large number of repeated usage during the
construction of a particular project.
Major drawback is that no alteration is possible once the formwork is
constructed.
Advantages:
Aluminum formwork is very economical when the construction area is large.
It is relatively lightweight when you compare it to steel formwork.
Aluminum formwork does not usually suck water from the concrete. The
resulting surface of the concrete has fewer chances of being honeycombed.
It provides the smooth surface of your concrete surface, making re-finishing this
surface unnecessary.

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 Plastic Formwork
Are lightweight, made from robust plastic, and characterized by interlocking
systems.
One of the best things about plastic formwork is that you can use it
approximately more than 100 times.
It is handy for normal concrete constructions and large housing schemes. It is
also a fantastic choice for small, repetitive construction projects and low-cost
housing estates.
Reusable plastic formwork have panels made of plastic, and this implies they do
not need formwork removing agents.
They can simply be cleaned with water.
Advantages
Do not need formwork removing agents. They can simply be cleaned with water.
Plastic formwork is usually lightweight and comes with less handling cost.
When you install and use it properly, you can enjoy multiple reuses with this
formwork

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 Tunnel Formwork
Tunnel formwork is a type of formwork in construction that is most commonly
associated with developing high-rise structures and buildings.
The tunnel formwork is a type of room formwork in which the RCC slab and
wall are cast in a continuous pour.
After that, hot air blows thermal curing is used to accelerate the curing process of
concrete.
The cycle time for the tunnel formwork system is usually around 1-3 days only.
The tunnel formwork system is very handy for repetitive room design.

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Tunnel Formwork

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Removal of Formwork

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 Shoring and its Types
It is the construction of temporary structure to support temporarily
unshaped structure.
It is lateral support to wall.
Uses :
When a wall shows sign of bulging out due to bad workmanship
When a wall cracks due to unequal settlement of foundation and
cracked wall needs repairing.
When an adjacent structure is to be dismantled.
When opening are to be made or enlarged in the wall

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Shoring

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 Shoring and its Types
Types of shoring:
Raking Shores
Flying Shores
Dead Shores
Raking Shores:
Rakers are inclined in the ground at 45.However the angle may be between 45 and 75.
For tall buildings, the length of the raker can be reduced by introducing rider raker.
Rakers should be properly braced at intervals.
The size of the rakers is to be decided on the basis of anticipated thrust from the wall.
The centre line of a raker and the wall should meet at floor level.
Shoring may be placed at 3 to 4.5m spacing to cover longer length of the bar.
The sole plate should be properly embedded into the ground on an inclination and should
be of proper section and size.
Wedges should not be used on sole plates since they are likely to give way under
vibrations that are likely to occur.

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 Raking Shores
A raking shore consists of
following components.
1.Rakers/inclined members
2.Wall plate
3.Needles
4.Cleats
5.Bracing
6.Sole Plate

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 Flying/ Horizontal Shores
Flying or Horizontal Shores, in this
type horizontal supports are
provided for supporting
temporarily the parallel walls of
the two adjacent buildings, which
may tend to collapse or damage
when one of the intermediate
buildings has to be pulled down
and rebuilt.

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 Dead Shores
Dead Shores or Vertical Shores, in this
system of shoring, the vertical members
known as dead shores are used to support
temporarily the walls, roofs, floors, etc. by
providing horizontal members known as
needle.
Objectives:
i.To rebuild the lower part of a defective load
bearing wall.
ii.To rebuild (or replace) or deepen the
existing foundations, which have either
become unsafe or require strengthening for
carrying heavier loads.
iii.To provide large openings in the existing
walls such as doors, windows, shop fronts or
garages at a lower level.

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 Underpinning and Its Types
• Underpinning is a method for repair and strengthening of building
foundations.
• There are situations where a failure in foundation or footing happens
unexpectedly after the completion of whole structure (both sub and
superstructure). Under such an emergency situation, a remedial
method has to be suggested to regain the structural stability.
The method of underpinning help to strengthen the foundation of an
existing building or any other infrastructure. These involve installation
of permanent or temporary support to an already held foundation so
that additional depth and bearing capacity is achieved.

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Underpinning and Its Types

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 Selection of Underpinning
Methods
• Methods are selected based on age of
structure and types of works involved.
• Structure based its age:
• Ancient Structure: Age greater than 150 yrs
• Recent Structures: Age between 50-150
years
• Modern Structure: Age less than 50 years.
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 Types of works for selection of
underpinning methods:
Conversion Works
•The structure has to be converted to another function, which requires stronger
foundation compared to existing.

Protection Works:
•The following problems of a building has to undergo protection works:The
existing foundation is not strong or stable
•Nearby excavation would affect the soil that supports existing footing.
•Stabilization of the foundation soil to resist against natural calamities
•Requirement of basement below an already existing structure

Remedial Works:
•Mistakes in initial foundation design caused subsidence of the structure
•Work on present structure than building a new one

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Structure Conditions which Requires
Underpinning
There are many reasons that make an engineer to suggest
underpinning method for stabilization of the substructure such as: The
degradation of timber piles used as a foundation for normal buildings
would cause settlement. This degradation of structures is due to water
table fluctuations.
Rise and lowering of the water table can cause a decrease of bearing
capacity of soil making the structure to settle.
Structures that are built over soil with a bearing capacity not suitable for
the structure would cause settlement.

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 Methods of Underpinning
• Mass concrete underpinning method (pit method)
• Underpinning by cantilever needle beam method
• Pier and beam underpinning method
• Mini piled underpinning
• Pile method of underpinning
• Pre-test method of underpinning
Whatever be the types of underpinning method selected for strengthening the foundation, all
of them follow a similar idea of extending the existing foundation either lengthwise or
breadthwise and to be laid over a stronger soil stratum. This enables distribution of load
over a greater area.

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 Mass Concrete Underpinning
Method(Pit Method)
The soil below the existing foundation is
excavated in a controlled manner through
stages or pins.
When strata suitable is reached, the
excavation is filled with concrete and kept for
curing, before next excavation starts.
In order to transfer the load from old
foundation to new one, a new pin is provided
by means of placing dry sand-cement pack.
This is a low-cost method suitable for the
shallow foundation.

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 Underpinning by Cantilever Needle
Beam Method
Extension of Pit Method.
If the foundation has to be extended only to
one side and the plan possess a stronger
interior column, this method can be used for
underpinning.
Advantages:
•Faster than traditional method
•One side access only
•High load carrying capability

Disadvantages:
•Digging found uneconomical when existing foundation is deep
•Constraint in access restricts the use of needle beams

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Pier and Beam Underpinning Method
Since mass concrete method couldn’t work
well for a huge depth of foundation, this
method progressed.
Feasible for most ground conditions.
Reinforced Beams are placed to transfer the
load to mass concrete bases or piers.
The size and depth of the beams are based on
the ground conditions and applied loads.
Economical for depth shallower than 6m.

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 Mini Piled Underpinning
This method can be implemented where the loads
from the foundation have to transferred to strata
located at a distance greater than 5m. This method
is adaptable for soil that has variable nature, access
is restrictive and causes environmental pollution
problems. Piles of diameter between 150 to 300mm
in diameter is driven which may be either augured
or driven steel cased ones.

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 Pile Method of Underpinning
In this method, piles are driven on adjacent
sides of the wall that supports the weak
foundation.
A needle or pin penetrates through the wall
that is in turn connected to the piles as shown
in figure
These needles behave like pile caps.
Settlement in soil due to water clogging or
clayey nature can be treated by this method

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Pre-test Method of Underpinning
• It is employed for strip or pad foundation. Can be used for building
with 5 to 10 stories. Here the subsoil is made compact and
compressed, in the new excavation level that gives predetermined
loads to the soil. This is done before underpinning is performed. Here
reduced noise and disruption are expected. This method cannot be
implemented for raft foundation.

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