ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEETS

Background
• Throughout the ages, people have always needed to calculate. Tools such as the
abacus were invented by the early Chinese to help keep track of large numbers.
About thirty years ago, students only had pen, paper, slide rules and mathematical
tables to help them in their mathematics exams. There were no such things as
calculators and certainly no personal computers. Calculators eventually became
everyday tools and certainly helped to speed up calculations and improve accuracy.
Even then, they weren't really good enough to solve complex problems or deal
with large amounts of repetitive work. With advancement in technology,
spreadsheets were developed.
• A spreadsheet is a piece of software which is used to work out calculations.
Spreadsheets can do a lot more than simply adding up a column of numbers.
Spreadsheets can handle financial calculations for a large business, calculate
probability or other statistical information, do complex trigonometry and make
colorful graphs and charts. Some examples of these spreadsheets include,
Microsoft Excel, VisiCalc, Lotus 1-2-3, MS-DOS spreadsheets and OpenOffice.org
Calc.
• Learning Outcome: The learner should be able to produce mark sheets, budgets,
class planners and many others.
 Presentation Outline
Electronic Spreadsheets
• Sub Topic 7.1: Introduction to
Spreadsheets
• Sub Topic 7.2: Managing Worksheets
• Sub Topic 7.3: Formulae and Functions
 Sub Topic 7.1: Introduction to Spreadsheets

Sub topic Objectives:

7.1.1 Meaning of a spreadsheet
7.1.2 Types of spreadsheets
7.1.3 Application areas, uses of spreadsheets
7.1.4 Features of a spreadsheet
7.1.5 Working with spreadsheets
 Performing Data Entry In A Worksheet.
 Renaming, Inserting And Deletes Worksheets.
 Saving A workbook.
 7.1.1 Meaning of a spreadsheet

• A Spreadsheet is a grid that organizes data in rows

and columns.
• Spreadsheet software refers to Application
software packages that are used for calculations,
including the creation of graphs.
• Examples of spreadsheet software applications
include: Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, K-Spread,
Apple Numbers, OpenOffice.org Calc, Kingsoft
Spreadsheets, Quattro Pro, Ability Spreadsheet,
etc.
 7.1.2 Types of spreadsheets

• There are manual spreadsheets and electronic

spreadsheets.
• Manual spreadsheets are not computer based
and are drawn on paper.
 7.1.2 Types of spreadsheets

Advantages of using electronic spreadsheet over manual spreadsheets

• The electronic spreadsheet utilizes the powerful aspects of
the computer like speed; accuracy and efficiency to enable
the user quickly accomplish tasks.
• The electronic spreadsheet offers a larger visual sheet for
data entry and manipulation for example the largest paper
ledger you can get is on that does not exceed 30 columns
and 51 rows. While with a electronic spreadsheet the least
ledger has at least 255 columns and 255 rows.
• The electronic spreadsheet utilizes the large storage space
on computer storage devices to save and retrieve
documents.
 7.1.2 Types of spreadsheets

Advantages of using electronic spreadsheet over manual spreadsheets

• The electronic spreadsheet enables the user to produce neat
work because the traditional paper, pencil and rubber plus
calculator are not put aside. All the work is edited on the screen
and the final clear copy is printed and yet with a hand written
spreadsheet, neatness depends on the writer’s hand writing.
• Electronic spreadsheet has inbuilt formulas called functions that
enable the user to quickly manipulate mathematical data.
• Electronic spreadsheet automatically adjusts the result of the
formula if the value in the worksheet is changed while for
manual worksheet changing one vale means rubbing the result
and writing the correct one again.
 7.1.3 Application areas, uses of spreadsheets

Spreadsheets are used in many areas, including the following:

• Budgeting and Statements. Microsoft Office Excel ships with
templates for creating budgets, cash-flow statements and
profit-and-loss statements, which are some of the most basic
documents used in accounting.
• Tabulation. Excel spreadsheets are designed to contain data in
a tabular format that supports both in-line and summation
calculations.
• Financial Analysis. Financial analysis using spreadsheets to list
customer and sales targets can help you manage your sales
force and plan future marketing plans based on past results.
 7.1.3 Application areas, uses of spreadsheets
• Time Sheets. Besides adding and subtracting integers,
spreadsheets can also perform those calculations on time-
based numbers.
• Chart Creation. Charts and graphs create better depictions
of trends and percentages than raw numbers. As they say,
"A picture's worth a thousand words." Spreadsheet
programs can convert your data into the visuals of your
choice, whether it's a pie chart, bar chart or line graph.
• Lists. You can create lists, from shopping lists to contact
lists, on a spreadsheet. For example, if you entered store items to
a spreadsheet along with their corresponding aisles, you could sort
by aisle and print before your shopping trip.
NB: Discuss more ways electronic spreadsheets are used.
 7.1.4 Features of a spreadsheet
Below are some of the key features of electronic spreadsheets.
• 1. Saving. Saving enables a user to create a file for the workbook in a
directory on the disk. The Save command can be accessed from the
File menu. NB: The file extension of an Excel document is .xls.
• 2. Columns and Rows. A spreadsheet is a grid consisting of columns
and rows. Rows are labelled with numbers, and columns are labelled
with letters, giving each cell a unique address consisting of a number
and a letter.
• 3. Auto Complete feature. The AutoComplete can speed up data
entry, especially if you have to enter a particular word or phrase
repeatedly.
• When you start entering data into an empty cell, directly below an
existing list, Excel will automatically offer you a match from the data
above it.
 7.1.4 Features of a spreadsheet
• 4. Formulas. Formulas are used to express mathematical
relationships between cells. For example entering =A1+B1 in C1
would add and display the sum of cells A1 and B1 into cell C1. It could
also be a simple mathematical formula, such as = (100-10 * 3) / 7.
Formulas are not displayed on spreadsheets. What you see in the cell
is the result of the formula. Don't forget about order of operations
(BEDMAS); anything inside parenthesis happens first, followed by
Exponent (^) Division (/) multiplication (*), followed by addition (+)
and subtraction (-). QN: What is the result of above formula? Why?
• 5. Functions. Functions are used as shortcuts when performing
mathematical calculations. Functions are pre-programmed formulae
that give power and flexibility to spreadsheet calculations. They save
the user from having to continually enter long and cumbersome
formula expressions. They constitute standard keywords and syntax.
Some examples are SUM, AVERAGE, MAX, and MIN.
 7.1.4 Features of a spreadsheet
• 6. Cell References / Addresses. You can refer to a Cell by
using the Column letter and Row number. For Example, D8
refers to a cell in Column D and Row 8. In this case, D8 is
known as the Cell Reference and is also used as the default
name for the cell.

A Circular reference occurs when a formula refers back to its

own cell, either directly or indirectly. For example inserting
the formula =A2+A3 in cell A2 creates a circular reference.
 7.1.5 Working with spreadsheets
When you open a spreadsheet application such as Microsoft Excel 2013,
you will see some common elements as labelled below.
 7.1.5 Working with spreadsheets
Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet Interface Components
• Active Cell - The active cell is recognized by its green outline. Data is
always entered into the active cell. Different cells can be made active
by clicking on them with the mouse or by using the arrow keys on the
keyboard.
• Add Sheet Icon - Clicking on the Add sheet icon next to the Sheet
tab at the bottom of the screen adds another worksheet. (You can
also use two keyboard shortcuts to add a new worksheet: Shift + F11
and Alt + Shift + F1.)
• Cell - Cells are the rectangular boxes located in central area of a
worksheet. Data entered into a worksheet is stored in a cell. Each cell
can hold only one piece of data at a time. A cell is the intersection
point of a vertical column and a horizontal row. Each cell in the
worksheet can be identified by a cell reference, which is a
combination of letters and numbers such as A1, F156, or AA34.
 7.1.5 Working with spreadsheets
Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet Interface Components
• Column Letters - Columns run vertically on a worksheet, and each
one is identified by a letter in the column header.​
• Formula Bar - Located above the worksheet, this area displays the
contents of the active cell. The formula bar can also be used for
entering or editing data and formulas.
• Name Box - Located next to the formula bar, the Name Box displays
the cell reference or the name of the active cell.
• Quick Access Toolbar - The Quick Access toolbar allows you to add
frequently used commands. Click on the down arrow at the end of
the toolbar to display available options.
• Ribbon - The Ribbon is the strip of buttons located above the
worksheet. First introduced in Excel 2007, the ribbons replaced the
menus and toolbars found in Excel 2003 and earlier versions.
 7.1.5 Working with spreadsheets
Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet Interface Components
• The File Tab: The File tab was introduced in Excel 2010, replacing the
Excel 2007 Office Button, and it works differently than the other
ribbons/ tabs. Instead of having its options display on the horizontal
ribbon, clicking on the File tab opens a drop-down menu on the left
side of the screen. This tab contains items that are mostly related to
file and document management, such as opening new or existing
worksheet files, saving, and printing.
• Row Numbers: Rows run horizontally in a worksheet and are
identified by a number in the row header.
• Zoom Slider Located in the bottom right corner of the Excel screen,
the Zoom slider is used to change the magnification of a worksheet
when you drag the slider box back and forth or click on the Zoom Out
and Zoom In buttons located at either end of the slider.
 7.1.5 Working with spreadsheets
Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet Interface Components
• Sheet Tabs: By default, there is one worksheet in an Excel 2013 file,
but you can add additional sheets. The Sheet tab at the bottom of a
worksheet tells you the name of the worksheet, such as Sheet1.
Renaming a worksheet or changing the tab color can make it easier to
keep track of data in large spreadsheet files. Switching between
worksheets can be done by clicking on the tab of the sheet you want
to access (or by using keyboard shortcut to change between
worksheets: Ctrl + PgUp and Ctrl + PgDn).
• Status Bar: The Status Bar, which runs horizontally along the bottom
of screen, can be customized to display a number of options, most of
which give the user information about the current worksheet, data
the worksheet contains, and the user's keyboard including whether
the Caps Lock, Scroll Lock, and Num Lock keys are turned on or off.
The status bar also contains the Zoom slider.
 Sub Topic 7.2: Managing Worksheets

Sub topic Objectives:

7.2.1 Inserting rows, columns and cells
7.2.2 Editing contents of a cell
7.2.3 Selecting cells
7.2.4 Copying the contents of a cell range, or worksheet between
worksheets or workbooks
7.2.5 Auto fill/ copy handle tool
7.2.6 Freezing panes
7.2.7 Formatting a worksheet (adjusting column widths, row
heights, applying borders and formatting cell content).
 7.2.1 Inserting rows, columns and cells
• You can insert blank cells above or to the left of the active cell on a
worksheet. When you insert blank cells, Excel shifts other cells in the
same column down or cells in the same row to the right to
accommodate the new cells. Similarly, you can insert rows above a
selected row and columns to the left of a selected column. You can
also delete cells, rows, and columns.
• Microsoft Excel has the following column and row limits: 16,384
columns wide by 1,048,576 rows tall.
NB: You can insert cells that contain data
and formulas by copying or cutting the
cells, right-clicking the location where
you want to paste them, and then
clicking Insert Copied Cells or Insert Cut
Cells. Home tab, in the Cells group,
There are options for inserting blank
cells, rows and columns.
 7.2.2 Editing contents of a cell
• You can enter data into a cell by positioning the cursor in the cell and
typing the information. The maximum number of characters that a
cell can contain is 32,000.
• Excel recognises text and numeric entries and initially displays them
with different alignments – left for text and right for numbers. You
can override these with other formats if required.
• To enter information:
– i. Move to the cell where you want the entry and type a word (for example
NAME in cell A1).
– The text will appear in the Formula bar as well as in the current cell. The cursor
will be visible as a flashing insertion point in the formula bar.
– ii. Click on the green tick mark on the formula bar to confirm the entry. OR
Press [ENTER] to confirm the entry.
• You can Edit the contents of an active cell by pressing F2 to switch to
edit mode or Edit from the formula bar.
 7.2.3 Selecting cells
To select Do this
A single cell Click the cell, or press the arrow keys to move to the cell.
A range of cells Click the first cell in the range, and then drag to the last cell, or hold down
SHIFT while you press the arrow keys to extend the selection.
You can also select the first cell in the range, and then press F8 to extend
the selection by using the arrow keys. To stop extending the selection, press
F8 again.

A large range of Click the first cell in the range, and then hold down SHIFT while you click the
cells last cell in the range. You can scroll to make the last cell visible.

All cells on a Click the Select All button.

worksheet

To select the entire worksheet, you can also press CTRL+A. NOTE If the
worksheet contains data, CTRL+A selects the current region. Pressing
CTRL+A a second time selects the entire worksheet.
To select Do this 7.2.3 Selecting cells
Nonadjac Select the first cell or range of cells, and then hold down CTRL while you
ent cells select the other cells or ranges.
or cell
ranges You can also select the first cell or range of cells, and then press SHIFT+F8
to add another nonadjacent cell or range to the selection. To stop adding
cells or ranges to the selection, press SHIFT+F8 again.

NOTE You cannot cancel the selection of a cell or range of cells in a

nonadjacent selection without canceling the entire selection.

An entire Click the row or column heading.

row or
column You can also select cells in a row or column by selecting the first cell and
then pressing CTRL+SHIFT+ARROW key (RIGHT ARROW or LEFT ARROW
for rows, UP ARROW or DOWN ARROW for columns).

NOTE If the row or column contains data, CTRL+SHIFT+ARROW key

selects the row or column to the last used cell. Pressing
CTRL+SHIFT+ARROW key a second time selects the entire row or column.
 7.2.3 Selecting cells
To select Do this
Adjacent rows or Drag across the row or column headings. Or select the first row or
columns column; then hold down SHIFT while you select the last row or column.
Nonadjacent rows Click the column or row heading of the first row or column in your
or columns selection; then hold down CTRL while you click the column or row
headings of other rows or columns that you want to add to the selection.
The first or last cell Press CTRL+HOME to select the first cell on the worksheet or in an Excel
on a worksheet or list.
in a Microsoft
Office Excel table Press CTRL+END to select the last cell on the worksheet or in an Excel list
that contains data or formatting.
Cells to the last Select the first cell, and then press CTRL+SHIFT+END to extend the
used cell on the selection of cells to the last used cell on the worksheet (lower-right
worksheet (lower- corner).
right corner)
Cells to the Select the first cell, and then press CTRL+SHIFT+HOME to extend the
beginning of the selection of cells to the beginning of the worksheet.
worksheet
 7.2.4 Copying data between worksheets or
workbooks
• You can use the Cut and Copy commands to move or copy a
portion of the data to other worksheets or workbooks.
– In a worksheet, select the data that you want to move or copy.
– If you want to move the data, press CTRL + X. If you want to copy,
press CTRL + C.
– Go to the worksheet where you want to paste the data, whether that
sheet is in the same workbook or a different one.
– Select the upper-left cell of the area in which you want to paste the
data.
– Note: Data in the paste area will be overwritten. Also, if the paste
area contains hidden rows or columns, you might have to unhide the
paste area to see all the copied cells.
– Press CTRL + V. QN: How can you do this procedure with a mouse?
 7.2.5 Auto fill/ copy handle tool

• The fill handle is a very useful tool in Excel. It allows

you to copy and clear data but also to fill in series of
data (dates, weekdays etc.).
• The fill handle appears in the bottom right hand
corner of the active cell or selection. When your
mouse is over the fill handle, the white plus pointer
changes to a black plus.
 7.2.5 Auto fill/ copy handle tool

Fill data into adjacent cells by using the fill handle

• First, you select the cells, that you want to use as a basis for
filling additional cells, and then drag the fill handle across or
down the cells that you want to fill.
Fill in a series of numbers, dates, patterns, days, months etc
– Select the first cell in the range that you want to fill.
– Type the first values for the series. For example, if you want the
series 1, 2, 3, 4, 5..., type 1 and 2 in the first two cells. If you want
the series 2, 4, 6, 8..., type 2 and 4. If you want the series 2, 2, 2,
2..., you can type only in the first cell.
– Select the cell or cells that contain the starting values.
– Drag the fill handle across the range that you want to fill.
 7.2.6 Freezing panes
• You can view two areas of a
worksheet and lock rows or
columns in one area by
freezing or splitting panes.
• For example, you would
freeze panes to keep row and
column labels like “City” Selecting areas to freeze:
visible as you scroll, as shown –To lock rows, select the row below
in the screenshot. where you want the split to appear.
• When you split panes, you –To lock columns, select the column
create separate worksheet to the right of where you want the
areas that you can scroll split to appear.
within, while rows or columns –To lock both rows and columns, click
in the non-scrolled area the cell below and to the right of
remain visible. where you want the split to appear.
 7.2.6 Freezing panes
• On the View tab, in the Window group, click Freeze
Panes, and then click the option that you want.

• NOTE: When you freeze panes, the Freeze Panes

option changes to Unfreeze Panes so that you can
unlock frozen rows or columns.
 7.2.7 Formatting a worksheet
• Having produced a spreadsheet, its look may be enhanced
to achieve a more professional and more easily readable
layout of data for both screen display and printout.
• There are several different ways of formatting data in Excel
to produce extremely impressive effects, and many of the
tools in the FORMATTING groups (Font, Alignment,
Number, and Styles) on the HOME ribbon are used for the
most popular formatting tasks such as Bold, italic and
underline, font style, font size, font color, fill colour, etc.

• NB: Click the Font dialog box launcher for more options.
 7.2.7 Formatting a worksheet
• Borders: When you print a worksheet, Excel
allows you to choose whether you want all the
cell gridlines to be printed or not. Often, you
want to print some but not all of the lines –
this is when you need to apply borders.
• You can then tell Excel not to print the gridlines
but your borders will be printed.
• To apply borders:
– i. Select the area you want to border.
– ii. Click the drop-down list arrow to the
right of the Borders button on the
Formatting toolbar.
– iii. From the palette, click on the required
border option.
 7.2.7 Formatting a worksheet
Merge Cells
• If you want to type a heading across the top of a table of data, it can
be quite difficult to line it up in the centre. Luckily Excel has a
solution.

• To merge Cells, Select the cells you want and Click the MERGE AND
CENTRE button from the Formatting toolbar.
 7.2.7 Formatting a worksheet
Initially, numbers in Excel use a General format. You may find that the
results of formulae run to different numbers of decimal places, or you
might want to display numbers as monetary values with a currency
symbol and two decimal places, or express as fractions or %ages.
• To Increase or decrease decimal places:
– i. Select the cells with the numbers you want to change.
– ii. Click the INCREASE DECIMAL button or the INCREASE DECIMAL button from
the Number group on the HOME ribbon
– iii. Keep clicking the button until your numbers display the correct number of
decimal places.
Percent Style
• Where you have typed decimals on the worksheet, you may want to
express those values as percentages. You can do this with the Percent
Style format. E.G. 0.5 would become 50% when you apply Percent
Style.
 7.2.7 Formatting a worksheet
• To apply Percent Style:
– Select the cells with the numeric data you want to format.
– Click the Percent Style button (%) from the Formatting toolbar.
• To apply comma formatting
– Click the comma (,) button.
• To apply currency style:
– Select the cells with the numeric data you want to format.
– Click the Currency button from the Number group on the HOME
ribbon.
– Using the drop down arrow to the right of the currency button
gives access to the most likely used currency formats. You can set
your own currency symbols such as Shs. Or /= using custom
options in the the FORMAT CELLS DIALOG box.
 7.2.7 Formatting a worksheet
• Format Cells Dialog (Ctrl+1)
• This dialog contains all the
formatting options (including
those accessible via the
Formatting toolbar) that you can
use within the Excel application.
• The Format Cells dialog is divided
into tabs, each tab dealing with a
format category.
• To access this dialog, Click the
DIALOG BOX LAUNCHER. From
either the FONT, ALIGNMENT or
NUMBER group on the HOME
ribbon OR i. Press [CTRL]+[1]
 7.2.7 Formatting a worksheet
Using the Format Cells dialog to
apply custom number formats
–You can set custom number formats such
as applying the Shs. Symbol before the
values by typing a custom number format
code under the “Type:” text box on the
Number Tab of the Format cells dialog box.
–For example, the code “Shs. ”0 appends
the Shs. Symbol before the value in a cell
as shown. The 0 acts as a placeholder to
the values.
–NB: Other code examples are shown in the
dialog box and are documented in the
Access help manuals. For details, Open Ms
Access 2007, type (F1) and search for
‘Format Property - Number and Currency
Data Types.’
 7.2.7 Formatting a worksheet
Using the Format Cells dialog to apply change cell
data orientation
To change orientation:
1. Select the cells you want to format.
ii. Open the Format cells dialog box and Click the
ALIGNMENT tab.
iii. In the ORIENTATION section, to keep characters
horizontal but arrange them one underneath the
other, click the picture that corresponds.
iv. Drag the red dot marker up or down to give a
degree value of plus or minus 90° from the base
position (horizontal).
v. Click OK to apply the new formats and close the
dialog.
 Sub Topic 7.3: Formulae and Functions

Sub topic Objectives:

1. Types of operators
2. Types of cell referencing
3. Formulae
4. Functions (sum, average, max, min,
lookup, count, mode, median, frequency
and var)
5. Error alerts
 7.3.1 Types of operators
• Arithmetic Operators
• The Excel Operators Precedence
perform actions on Operator Description (1=top;
3=bottom)
numeric values, text or
cell references. % The
operator
percent
1

• There are four different

types of Excel Operators.
^ The exponentiation
operator
1

• These are: * The multiplication

operator
2
– Arithmetic Operators
– Text Operator / The division operator 2

– Comparison Operators + The

operator
addition
3
– Reference Operators
- The
operator
subtraction
3
 7.3.1 Types of operators
Precedence: when • Arithmetic Operator Examples
evaluating Excel Formulas
that contain more than
one arithmetic operator,
the percent and
exponentiation operators
are evaluated first,
followed by multiplication
and division operators.
Finally, the addition and
subtraction operators are
evaluated.
 7.3.1 Types of operators

• Text Operator
• The Excel Concatenation Operator (denoted
by the & symbol) joins together text strings, to
make a further, single text string.
• The following formula uses the concatenation
operator to combine the text strings "SMITH",
", " and "John"
 7.3.1 Types of operators
Operator Description
Comparison Operator
• The Excel Comparison = Equal to
Operators are used
when defining > Greater than
conditions (for < Less than
example when using
Greater than or equal
the Excel If Function). >= to
These operators are
<= Less than or equal to
listed in the table
below: <> Not equal to
 7.3.1 Types of operators

• Excel Reference Operators

Operator
– used when referring to Description
ranges within a
: Range operator (defines a reference to a range of
spreadsheet:
cells) eg A1:A11

, Union operator (combines two references into a

single reference) eg A1,A3

Intersection operator (returns a reference to the

(space) intersection of two ranges)
 7.3.1 Types of operators
Excel Reference Intersection Operator Example

• Cell C1 of the following spreadsheet shows the intersection

operator, used to define a range made up of cells in the
intersection of ranges A1-A3 and A1-B2.
• The resulting range (range A1-A2) is then provided to the
Excel Sum Function, which adds together the values in the
intersecting range and returns the value 4.
 7.3.2 Types of cell referencing
RELATIVE, ABSOLUTE AND MIXED CELL REFERENCES
• Relative Reference: A relative reference is a cell
address that changes when it is copied to other cells
in a spreadsheet. This is because it is based on the
relative position of the cell.
– Example: If in the cell C3 we have the formula =C1+C2,
and we copy the formula to cell D3, then it would
automatically adjust to = D1+D2.
 7.3.2 Types of cell referencing
RELATIVE, ABSOLUTE AND MIXED CELL REFERENCES
• Absolute Reference: An absolute cell reference is a
cell address that does not change when it is copied
to other cells in the spreadsheet. Absolute
references always refer to cells in a specific location.
• To make a cell address absolute, we insert the dollar
symbol $ before the letter that identifies the
column and before the number that identifies the
row, example B1 becomes $B$1.
• If you copy the formula across rows or down
columns, the absolute reference does not adjust.
 7.3.2 Types of cell referencing
RELATIVE, ABSOLUTE AND MIXED CELL REFERENCES
• Absolute Reference Example: If in the cell C3 we
have the formula =$C$1+$C$2, and we copy the
formula to cell D3, then it would remain the same
=$C$1+$C$2.
 7.3.2 Types of cell referencing
RELATIVE, ABSOLUTE AND MIXED CELL REFERENCES
• Mixed Reference: is when you have either: an
absolute column and a relative row e.g. $C1 or a
relative column and an absolute row e.g. C$1. And if
the cell address is copied to other cells, the relative
part changes and the absolute part does not
change.
• Note: An easy way to add the dollar signs to a cell
reference is to press the F4 key on the keyboard
when editing a cell reference.
 7.3.2 Types of cell referencing
RELATIVE, ABSOLUTE AND MIXED CELL REFERENCES
Mixed Reference Example: If in the cell C3 we have
the formula =$C1+C$2, and we copy the formula to
cell D4, then it would automatically adjust to
=$C2+D$2.
 7.3.2 Types of cell referencing
Mixed Cell Reference
Application Example:
You can enter one formular
using mixed cell references:
=$A3*B$2 in cell B3
and then copy it to the rest
of the cells in the range
B3:K12 to automatically
generate the products in
the multiplication table on
the right. Column A and Row
2 are made absolute because for
all the multiplications, a cell from
Col A and Row 2 are involved.
 7.3.3 Formulae
• You enter formulae by typing them in the cell where you want the
formula’s result to appear. When you confirm entry of a formula,
Excel will display the result on the worksheet, but the underlying
calculation appears on the Formula bar.

• To enter a formular
– i. Move to the cell where you want to enter the formula.
– ii. Type an equals sign (=). NB: The result automatically
– iii. Type the formula (e.g. D2*E2). recalculates if any determinant values
change. It is this automatic recalculation
– iv. Press [ENTER] to confirm the entry.
which makes spreadsheets invaluable.
 7.3.4 Functions
• You could construct a formula to generate a total at the bottom of a
column (or the end of a row), like this: =D2+D3+D4+D5
• The above formula would work, but if there were 400 cells to total
and not just 4, you would get bored with entering the individual cell
references.
• When formulae become unwieldy or complex, Excel comes to the
rescue with its own predefined, named, built-in formulae
known as functions. Functions follow the same syntax:
 7.3.4 Functions
• Excel has a huge number of
functions. The functions
are categorized according
to what they do. Function
categories include
Financial, Logical, Lookup,
Text, Date and Time.

Excel displays information about function arguments as you build

a new formula. The tool tips also provide a quick path to HELP.
Detailed documentation and examples on all functions can also be
accessed through the HELP facility by pressing F1.
 7.3.4 Functions
SYNTAX FUNCTION DESCRIPTION
• Common Functions
=AVERAGE(C1:C4) Find the average (mean) of a list of numbers.
=COUNT(B4:B12) Counts the number of cells which have a
number in them
=MAX(A2:A6) Largest of the numbers in the range A2:A6
=MEDIAN(A2:A6) Median of all the numbers in the range A2:A6
=MIN(A2:A6) Smallest of the numbers in the range A2:A6
=MODE(A2:A6) Returns the commonest or most frequently
occurring number in the range A2:A6
=SUM(C1:C4) Adds a all of numbers in the range C1:C4
 7.3.4 Functions
FUNCTION SYNTAX FUNCTION DESCRIPTION
•
=LOOKUP Common Functions
Looks up 4.19 in column A, and returns the value from column B that
(4.19, A2:A6, B2:B6) is in the same row.

=FREQUENCY Calculates how often values occur within a range of values,

(A2:A10, B2:B4) and then returns a vertical array of numbers. For example, use
FREQUENCY to count the number of test scores that fall within
ranges of scores.
=VAR(A2:A11) Estimates the variance of a sample of values in the range
A2:A11.
VAR uses the following formula:

where x is the sample mean AVERAGE(A2:A11) and n is the

sample size.
 7.3.5 Error alerts
• The table below provides a quick reference guide of what
each of the different error messages means.
ERROR Description
#NULL! Arises when you refer to an intersection of two ranges that
do not intersect, Or is a space was used instead of a comma
in a formula.
#DIV/0! Occurs when a formula attempts to divide by zero.
#VALUE! Occurs if one of the variables in your formula is of the wrong
type (e.g. text value when a numeric value is expected).
#REF! Arises when a formula contains an invalid cell reference.
#NAME? Occurs if Excel does not recognise a formula name or does
not recognise text within a formula.
#NUM! Occurs when Excel encounters an invalid number.
#N/A Indicates that a value is not available to a formula.