STRUCTURAL CEE 366

ANALYSIS Engr (Mrs) Giwa Z.T

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TYPES OF STRUCTURES
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a
load. Important examples related to civil engineering include
buildings, bridges, and towers; and in other branches of
engineering, ship and aircraft frames, tanks, pressure vessels,
mechanical systems, and electrical supporting structures.

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When designing a structure to serve a specified function for public
use, the engineer must account for its safety, esthetics, and
serviceability, while taking into consideration economic and
environmental constraints.

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To analyze a structure properly, certain idealizations must be made
as to how the members are supported and connected together. The
loadings are determined from codes and local specifications, and
the forces in the members and their displacements are found using
the theory of structural analysis.

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The results of this analysis then can be used to design the
structure, accounting for a more accurate determination of the
weight of the members and their size. Structural design, therefore,
follows a series of successive approximations in which every cycle
requires a structural analysis.

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CLASSIFICATION OF
STRUCTURES
It is important for a structural engineer to recognize the various
types of elements composing a structure and to be able to classify
structures as to their form and function.

Structural Elements: Some of the more common elements from

which structures are composed are as follows:

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CLASSIFICATION OF
STRUCTURES
Tie Rods: Structural members subjected to a tensile
force are often referred to as tie rods or bracing struts.
Due to the nature of this load, these members are
rather slender and are often chosen from rods, bars,
angles, or channels as shown in Fig.1–1.

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Beams:

Beams are usually straight horizontal members used

primarily to carry vertical loads. Quite often they are
classified according to the way they are supported,
as indicated in Fig. 1–2.

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Columns:

Members that are generally vertical and resist axial

compressive loads are referred to as columns, Fig. 1–4.
Tubes and wide-flange cross sections are often used for
metal columns, and circular and square cross sections with
reinforcing rods are used for those made of concrete.
Occasionally, columns are subjected to both an axial load
and a bending moment as shown in the figure. These
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TYPES OF STRUCTURES
The combination of structural elements and the materials from
which they are composed is referred to as a structural system. Each
system is constructed of one or more of four basic types of
structures. Ranked in order of complexity of their force analysis,
they are as follows:

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1. Trusses

When the span of a structure is required to be large and its depth is

not an important criterion for design, a truss may be selected.
Trusses consist of slender elements, usually arranged in triangular
fashion. Planar trusses are composed of members that lie in the
same plane and are frequently used for bridge and roof support,
whereas space trusses have members extending in three
dimensions and are suitable for derricks and towers.
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Cables and Arches: Two other forms of structures used to span long
distances are the cable and the arch. Cables are usually flexible and carry
their loads in tension. They are commonly used to support bridges as shown
in Fig.1–6a, and building roofs. When used for these purposes, the cable has
an advantage over the beam and the truss, especially for spans that are
greater than 150 ft (46 m). Because they are always in tension, cables will
not become unstable and suddenly collapse, as may happen with beams or
trusses. Furthermore, the truss will require added costs for construction and
increased depth as the span increases. Use of cables, on the other hand, is
limited only by their sag, weight, and methods of anchorage.

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The arch achieves its strength in compression, since it
has a reverse curvature to that of the cable. The arch
must be rigid, however, in order to maintain its
shape, and this results in secondary loadings
involving shear and moment, which must be
considered in its design. Arches are frequently used in
bridge structures, Fig. 1–6b, dome roofs, and for
openings in masonry walls.
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Frames:

Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams

and columns that are either pin or fixed connected, Fig.1–7. Like
trusses, frames extend in two or three dimensions. The loading on
a frame causes bending of its members, and if it has rigid joint
connections, this structure is generally “indeterminate” from a
standpoint of analysis. The strength of such a frame is derived
from the moment interactions between the beams and the
columns at the rigid joints.
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ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY
DETERMINATE STRUCTURES
Idealized Structures

An exact analysis of a structure can never be carried out, since

estimates always have to be made of the loadings and the strength
of the materials composing the structure. Furthermore, points of
application for the loadings must also be estimated. It is important,
therefore, that the structural engineer develop the ability to model
or idealize a structure so that he or she can perform a practical
force analysis of the members.
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Support Connections: Structural members are joined together in various ways
depending on the intent of the designer. The three types of joints most often
specified are the pin connection, the roller support, and the fixed joint. A pin-
connected joint and a roller support allow some freedom for slight rotation,
whereas a fixed joint allows no relative rotation between the connected members
and is consequently more expensive to fabricate. Examples of these joints,
fashioned in metal and concrete, are shown in the figure below. For most timber
structures, the members are assumed to be pin connected, since bolting or nailing
them will not sufficiently restrain them from rotating with respect to each other.

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Idealized models used in structural analysis that represent pinned
and fixed supports and pin-connected and fixed-connected joints
are shown in Figs. 2–3a and 2–3b. In reality, however, all
connections exhibit some stiffness toward joint rotations, owing to
friction and material behavior. In this case a more appropriate
model for a support or joint might be that shown in Fig.2–3c. If the
torsional spring constant the joint is a pin, and if the joint is fixed.

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Other types of connections most commonly encountered on coplanar
structures are given in Table 2–1. It is important to be able to
recognize the symbols for these connections and the kinds of
reactions they exert on their attached members. This can easily be
done by noting how the connection prevents any degree of freedom
or displacement of the member. In particular, the support will develop
a force on the member if it prevents translation of the member, and it
will develop a moment if it prevents rotation of the member.
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Idealized Structure: Having stated the various ways in which
the connections on a structure can be idealized, we are now
ready to discuss some of the techniques used to represent
various structural systems by idealized models. As a first
example, consider the jib crane and trolley in Fig. 2–5a. For the
structural analysis we can neglect the thickness of the two main
members and will assume that the joint at B is fabricated to be
rigid. Furthermore, the support connection at A can be modeled
as a fixed support and the details of the trolley excluded. Thus,
the members of the idealized structure are represented by two
connected lines, and the load on the hook is represented by a
single concentrated force F, Fig. 2–5b. This idealized structure
shown here as a line drawing can now be used for applying the
principles of structural analysis, which will eventually lead to the
design of its two main members.
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Beams and girders are often used to support building floors. In particular,

a girder is the main load-carrying element of the floor, whereas the

smaller elements having a shorter span and connected to the girders are

called beams. Often the loads that are applied to a beam or girder are

transmitted to it by the floor that is supported by the beam or girder.

Again, it is important to be able to appropriately idealize the system as a

series of models, which can be used to determine, to a close

approximation, the forces acting in the members. Consider, for example,

the framing used to support a typical floor slab in a building, Fig.2–6a.

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Here the slab is supported by floor joists located at even intervals, and

these in turn are supported by the two side girders AB and CD. For analysis

it is reasonable to assume that the joints are pin and/or roller connected to

the girders and that the girders are pin and/or roller connected to the

columns. The top view of the structural framing plan for this system is

shown in Fig. 2–6b. In this “graphic” scheme, notice that the “lines”

representing the joists do not touch the girders and the lines for the girders

do not touch the columns. This symbolizes pin- and/ or roller-supported

connections.
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On the other hand, if the framing plan is intended to

represent fixed-connected members, such as those that are

welded instead of simple bolted connections, then the lines

for the beams or girders would touch the columns as in Fig.

2–7.

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TRIBUTARY LOADINGS
When flat surfaces such as walls, floors, or roofs are supported by a
structural frame, it is necessary to determine how the load on these
surfaces is transmitted to the various structural elements used for
their support. There are generally two ways in which this can be
done. The choice depends on the geometry of the structural system,
the material from which it is made, and the method of its
construction.

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One-Way System: A slab or deck that is supported such that it
delivers its load to the supporting members by one-way action, is
often referred to as a one-way slab. To illustrate the method of
load transmission, consider the framing system shown in Fig.2–
11a where the beams AB, CD, and EF rest on the girders AE and
BF. If a uniform load of is placed on the slab, then the center
beam CD is assumed to support the load acting on the tributary
area shown dark shaded on the structural framing plan in Fig. 2–
11b.
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Member CD is therefore subjected to a linear
distribution of load of shown on the idealized beam in
Fig.2–11c.The reactions on this beam (2500 lb) would
then be applied to the center of the girders AE(and
BF),shown idealized in Fig.2–11d.Using this same
concept, do you see how the remaining portion of the
slab loading is transmitted to the ends of the girder
as 1250 lb?
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For some floor systems the beams and girders are
connected to the columns at the same elevation, as in
Fig.2–12a. If this is the case, the slab can in some
cases also be considered a “one-way slab.” For
example, if the slab is reinforced concrete with
reinforcement in only one direction, or the concrete is
poured on a corrugated metal deck, as in the above
photo, then one-way action of load transmission can
be assumed.
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On the other hand, if the slab is flat on top and bottom and is
reinforced in two directions, then consideration must be given to
the possibility of the load being transmitted to the supporting
members from either one or two directions. For example,
consider the slab and framing plan in Fig.2–12b. According to the
American Concrete Institute, ACI 318 code, if and if the span
ratio , the slab will behave as a one-way slab, since as becomes
smaller, the beams AB, CD, and EF provide the greater stiffness
to carry the load.
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TWO-WAY SYSTEM
If, according to the ACI 318 concrete code the support ratio in
Fig. 2–12b is the load is assumed to be delivered to the
supporting beams and girders in two directions. When this is
the case the slab is referred to as a two-way slab. To show
one method of treating this case, consider the square
reinforced concrete slab in Fig.2–13a,which is supported by
four 10-ft-long edge beams, AB, BD, DC, and CA. Here Due to
two-way slab action, the assumed tributary area for beam AB
is shown dark shaded in Fig.2–13b.
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This area is determined by constructing diagonal 45° lines as

shown. Hence if a uniform load of is applied to the slab, a peak

intensity of will be applied to the center of beam AB, resulting in a

triangular load distribution shown in Fig. 2–13c. For other

geometries that cause two-way action, a similar procedure can be

used. For example, if it is then necessary to construct 45° lines

that intersect as shown in Fig. 2–14a. A loading placed on the slab

will then produce trapezoidal and triangular distributed loads on

members AB and AC, Fig.2–14b and 2–14c, respectively.

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EXAMPLE
The flat roof of the steel-frame building shown in Figure (a) is
intended to support a total load of over its surface. Determine the
roof load within region ABCD that is transmitted to beam BC. The
dimensions are shown in Fig.2–16a.

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SOLUTION
In this case . Since we have two-way slab action. The tributary
loading along each edge beam is shown in Fig. 2–16a, where the
lighter shaded trapezoidal area of loading is transmitted to member
BC. The peak intensity of this loading is As a result, the distribution
of load along BC is shown in Fig.2–16b.

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PRINCIPLE OF
SUPERPOSITION
The principle of superposition forms the basis for much of the theory of
structural analysis. It may be stated as follows:

The total displacement or internal loadings (stress) at a point in a

structure subjected to several external loadings can be determined
by adding together the displacements or internal loadings (stress)
caused by each of the external loads acting separately.

For this statement to be valid it is necessary that a linear relationship exist

among the loads, stresses, and displacements.
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Two requirements must be imposed for the principle of
superposition to apply:

1. The material must behave in a linear-elastic manner, so that

Hooke’s law is valid, and therefore the load will be proportional
to displacement.

2. The geometry of the structure must not undergo significant

change when the loads are applied, i.e., small displacement
theory applies.
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EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM
It may be recalled from statics that a structure or one of its members
is in equilibrium when it maintains a balance of force and moment. In
general this requires that the force and moment equations of
equilibrium be satisfied along three independent axes, namely,

; ;
; ;

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The principal load-carrying portions of most structures, however, lie

in a single plane, and since the loads are also coplanar, the above

requirements for equilibrium reduce to

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APPLICATION OF EQUATIONS
OF EQUILIBRIUM
Determine the reactions on the beam shown in Fig.2–29a.

SOLUTION

Free-body diagram. As shown in Fig. 2–29b, the trapezoidal

distributed loading is segmented into a triangular and a uniform
load. The areas under the triangle and rectangle represent the
resultant forces. These forces act through the centroid of their
corresponding areas.
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Determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction at
the pins A, B, and C of the two-member frame shown in Fig.2–32a.

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SOLUTION
Free-Body Diagrams. The free-body diagram of each member is
shown in Fig.2–32b.
Equations of Equilibrium. Applying the six equations of
equilibrium in the following sequence allows a direct solution for
each of the six unknowns.

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DETERMINACY AND
STABILITY
Determinacy.

The equilibrium equations provide both the necessary and

sufficient conditions for equilibrium. When all the forces in a
structure can be determined strictly from these equations, the
structure is referred to as statically determinate. Structures
having more unknown forces than available equilibrium equations
are called statically indeterminate.

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 As a general rule, a structure can be identified as being either
statically determinate or statically indeterminate by drawing free-
body diagrams of all its members, or selective parts of its
members, and then comparing the total number of unknown
reactive force and moment components with the total number of
available equilibrium equations.

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For a coplanar structure there are at most three equilibrium
equations for each part, so that if there is a total of n parts and r
force and moment reaction components, we have

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Classify each of the beams shown in Fig. 2–19a through 2–19d as
statically determinate or statically indeterminate. If statically
indeterminate, report the number of degrees of indeterminacy. The
beams are subjected to external loadings that are assumed to be
known and can act anywhere on the beams.

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Classify each of the pin-connected structures shown in Fig. 2–20a
through 2–20d as statically determinate or statically indeterminate.
If statically indeterminate, report the number of degrees of
indeterminacy. The structures are subjected to arbitrary external
loadings that are assumed to be known and can act anywhere on
the structures.

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Classify each of the frames shown in Fig.2–21a and 2–21b as
statically determinate or statically indeterminate. If statically
indeterminate, report the number of degrees of indeterminacy. The
frames are subjected to external loadings that are assumed to be
known and can act anywhere on the frames.

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SOLUTION
Unlike the beams and pin-connected structures of the previous
examples, frame structures consist of members that are connected
together by rigid joints. Sometimes the members form internal loops
as in Fig.2–21a.Here ABCD forms a closed loop. In order to classify
these structures, it is necessary to use the method of sections and
“cut” the loop apart. The free-body diagrams of the sectioned parts
are drawn and the frame can then be classified. Notice that only one
section through the loop is required, since once the unknowns at the
section are determined, the internal forces at any point in the 53
A second example of this is shown
in Fig. 2–21b. Although the frame in
Fig. 2–21c has no closed loops we
can use this same method, using
vertical sections, to classify it. For
this case we can also just draw its
complete free-body diagram. The
resulting classifications are
indicated in each figure.

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STABILITY
To ensure the equilibrium of a structure or its members, it is not
only necessary to satisfy the equations of equilibrium, but the
members must also be properly held or constrained by their
supports. Two situations may occur where the conditions for proper
constraint have not been met.

1. Partial Constraints.

2. Improper Constraints.
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In general, then, a structure will be geometrically unstable
—that is, it will move slightly or collapse—if there are fewer
reactive forces than equations of equilibrium; or if there are
enough reactions, instability will occur if the lines of action
of the reactive forces intersect at a common point or are
parallel to one another.

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Classify each of the structures in Fig.2–25athrough 2–25d as stable
or unstable. The structures are subjected to arbitrary external loads
that are assumed to be known.

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ASSIGNMENT
Classify each of the structures as statically determinate, statically
indeterminate, stable, or unstable. If indeterminate, specify the
degree of indeterminacy. The supports or connections are to be
assumed as stated.

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Determine the reactions at the supports A and B of the compound
beam. There is a pin at C.

Determine the reactions on the beam. Neglect the thickness of the

beam.

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TRUSSES
A truss is a structure composed of slender members joined
together at their end points. The members commonly used in
construction consist of wooden struts, metal bars, angles, or
channels. The joint connections are usually formed by bolting or
welding the ends of the members to a common plate, called a
gusset plate

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DETERMINACY
For any problem in truss analysis, it should be realized that the
total number of unknowns includes the forces in b number of bars
of the truss and the total number of external support reactions r.

In particular, the degree of indeterminacy is specified by the

difference in the numbers
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Classify each of the trusses in Fig. 3–18 as stable, unstable,
statically determinate, or statically indeterminate. The trusses are
subjected to arbitrary external loadings that are assumed to be
known and can act anywhere on the trusses.

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CLASSWORK
Classify each of the following trusses as statically determinate,
indeterminate, or unstable. If indeterminate, state its degree.

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