Unit 1

Illumination

Nikhil S. Varade
Lecturer in Electrical Department
Government Polytechnic, Jalgaon
1
 Introduction
• Light is form of radiant energy and main source of light is sun.
• Various forms of incandescent bodies are sources of light and light
emitted by such bodies depends upon temperature of bodies

2
 Terms used in illumination
A) Light :
It is defines as radiant energy from a hot body which produces
visual sensation upon human eye. It is denoted by Q and expresses in
Lumen-hours.

B) Luminous flux :
It is defined as total quantity of light energy emitted per second
from a luminous body. It is represented by F and measured in Lumens.

3
 Terms used in illumination
C) Luminous intensity :
It is defines as Luminous flux emitted by source per unit solid
angle in given direction. It is denoted by and measured in candela
If F = Luminous flux, w = solid angle
I=

4
 Terms used in illumination
E) Lumen :
It is unit of luminous flux and defined as luminous flux given out
in space represented by one unit of solid angle by source having an
intensity of one candle power
Lumens = candle power x w

F) Solid angle :
Solid angle is the angle subtended at a point in space by an area,
i.e., the angle enclosed in the volume formed by numerous lines lying on
the surface and meeting at the point. It is usually denoted by symbol ‘ω’
and is measured in steradian. 5
 Terms used in illumination
G) Candle power :
It is light radiating capacity of source in given direction and
defined as number of lumens given out by source in solid angle in a
given direction. It is denoted by C.P
CP =
H) Illumination :
When a light falls upon any surface this phenomenon is called as
illumination. It is defined as number of lumens falling on surface per
unit area. It is denoted by E
E = lumens per
6
 Terms used in Illumination
I) Lux or meter candle :
It is the unit of illumination and is defined as the luminous flux
falling per square meter on the surface which is everywhere
perpendicular to the rays of light from a source of one candle power and
one meter away from it.

J) Mean horizontal candle power: (M.H.C.P)

It is defined as the mean of candle powers in all directions in the
horizontal plane containing the source of light.

7
 Terms used in illumination
K) Mean spherical candle power: ( M.S.C.P)
It is defined as the mean of the candle powers in all directions
and in all planes from the source of light.

L) Mean hemi-spherical candle power: (M.H.S.C.P)

It is defined as the mean of candle powers in all directions above
or below the horizontal plane passing through the source of light.

8
 Terms used in illumination
M) Reduction factor:
Reduction factor of a source of light is the ratio of its mean
spherical candle power to its mean horizontal candle power.
CP =

N) Lamp efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the luminous flux to the

power input. It is expressed in lumens per watt.

9
 Terms used in illumination
O) Glare:-
Brightness within field of vision of such character as to cause
interference, annoyance, discomfort with vision or eye fatigue.

P) Space height ratio:- it is defined as the ratio of distance between

adjacent lamps and height of their mountains.

Space to height =

10
 Terms used in illumination
Q) Utilization factor or co-efficient of utilization:-
It is defined as the ratio of total lumens reaching the working
plane to total lumens given out by the lamp
Utilization factor =
R) Maintenance factor :-
The ratio of illumination under normal working conditions to the
illumination when the things are perfectly clean is known as
maintenance factor.
Maintenance factor =

11
 Terms used in illumination
S) Depreciation factor:
this is merely reverse of the maintenance factor and is defined as
the ratio of illumination when the things are perfectly clean to
illumination under normal working conditions. Its value is more than
unity.
Depreciation factor =

12
 Terms used in illumination
T) Waste light factor:
Whenever a surface is illuminated by a number of sources of
light, there is always a certain amount of waste of light on account of
over-lapping and falling of light outside at the edges of the surface. The
effect is taken into account by multiplying the theoretical value of
lumens required by 1.2 for rectangular areas and 1.5 for irregular areas
and objects such as statues, monuments etc.

13
 Terms used in illumination
U) Absorption factor:
In the places where atmosphere is full of smoke fumes, such as in
foundries, there is a possibility of absorption of light. The ratio of total
lumens available after absorption to the total lumens emitted by the
source of light is called the absorption factor.

14
 Laws of Illumination
Mainly there are two laws of illumination.

1. Inverse square law.

2. Lambert's cosine law.

15
 Inverse square law
This law states that ‘the illumination of a surface is inversely
proportional to the square of distance of the surface from the source of
light.

16
 Inverse square law
Let, ‘S’ be a point source of luminous intensity ‘I’ candela, the
luminous flux emitting from source crossing the three parallel plates
having areas , , square meters, which are separated by a distances of d,
2d, and 3d from the point source respectively as shown in Fig
For area
Luminous flux reaching the area = luminous intensity × solid angle
=I*ω
Illumination on surface
= = =

17
 Inverse square law
Illumination on surface
= = =

Illumination on surface
= = =

Hence, from Equation, illumination on any surface is inversely

proportional to the square of distance between the surface and the
source.

18
 Lambert’s cosine law
Illuminated surface is not normal to direction of light but in
practice it is inclined.
This law states that “ illumination, E at any point on a surface is
directly proportional to the cosine of the angle between the line of flux &
the normal at that point”.

19
 Lambert’s cosine law
Let us assume that the surface is inclined at an angle ‘θ’ to the

E 𝛂 Cos𝛉
lines of flux as shown in Fig

And
E=

E= Cos𝛉
So

20
 Types of Lighting scheme
Usually, with the reflector and some special diffusing screens, it is
possible to control the distribution of light emitted from lamps up to
some extent.
A good lighting scheme results in an attractive and commanding
presence of objects and enhances the architectural style of the interior of
a building.
Depending upon the requirements and the way of light reaching the
surface, lighting schemes are classified as follows:
1. Direct lighting scheme 2. Semi direct lighting scheme
3. Indirect lighting scheme 4. Semi-indirect lighting scheme
5. General Lighting scheme 21
 A) Direct lighting scheme
• Direct lighting scheme is most widely used for interior lighting
scheme. In this scheme, by using deep reflectors,

• It is possible to make 90% of light falls just below the lamp. This
scheme is more efficient but it suffers from hard shadows and glare.

• Hence, while designing such schemes, all the possibilities that will
cause glare on the eye have to be eliminated.

• It is mainly used for industrial and general outdoor lighting.

22
 B) Semi-Direct lighting scheme

• In semi-direct lighting scheme, about 60–90% of lamps luminous flux

is made to fall downward directly by using some reflectors and the
rest of the light is used to illuminate the walls and ceiling.

• This type of light scheme is employed in rooms with high ceiling.

Glare can be avoided by employing diffusing globes.

• This scheme will improve not only the brightness but also the
efficiency.
23
 C) Indirect lighting scheme

• In this lighting scheme, 90% of total light is thrown upwards to the

ceiling.

• In such scheme, the ceiling acts as the lighting source and glare is
reduced to minimum.

• This system provides shadow less illumination, which is very useful

for drawing offices and in workshops where large machines and other
difficulties would cause trouble some shadows if direct lighting
schemes were used.
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 D) Semi-indirect lighting scheme

• In semi-indirect lighting scheme, about 60–90% of light from the

lamp is thrown upwards to the ceiling and the remaining luminous
flux reaches the working surface.

• Glare will be completely eliminated with such type of lighting

scheme.

• This scheme is widely preferred for indoor lighting decoration

purpose.
25
 E) General lighting scheme

• This scheme of lighting use diffusing glasses to produce the equal

illumination in all directions.
• Mounting height of the source should be much above eye level to
avoid glare.

26
 Design of Lighting scheme
The lighting scheme should be such that:
• It should be able to provide sufficient illumination.
• It should be able to provide the uniform distribution of light
throughout the working plane.
• It should be able to produce the light of suitable color.
• It should be able to avoid glare and hard shadows as much as possible

27
*While designing a lighting scheme, the following factors should be
taken into consideration.
a) Illumination level
b) Uniform illumination
c) Color of Light
d) Shadows and Glare
e) Location of source of Light
f) Colors of surrounding walls & ceiling
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 Various types of Lamps
A) Sodium Vapour Discharge lamp

29
 B) High
Pressure
Mercury vapour
Discharge
Lamp

30
 Various types of Lamps
C) Fluorescent tube (Low Pressure mercury vapour lamp)

31
 Various types of Lamps
D) Compact Fluorescent lamp

32
 Various types of Lamps
E) Metal Halide Lamp

33
 Unit 2
Electric Heating and Welding system

Nikhil S. Varade
Lecturer in Electrical Department
Government Polytechnic, Jalgaon
34
 Learning outcomes
• Concept of Electric Heating.

• Classification of Electric Heating.

• Types of Electric Heating & their working Principle.

35
 Introduction
• Heating is required for domestic purposes such as cooking and
heating of buildings as well as for industrial purposes such as melting
of metals, hardening, drying and welding.
• Practically all heating requirements can be met by some form of
electric heating.
• There are several advantages of electric heating over other systems of
heating (Coal, oil or gas heating).

36
 Introduction
 There are several advantages of electric heating over other systems of
heating (Coal, oil or gas heating).
a) Economical.
b) Cleanliness.
c) Absence of Flue gases.
d) Ease of control.
e) Automatic Protection.
f) Upper limit of Temperature.
g) Special Heating Requirements.
h) High Efficiency of utilization. i) Safety.
37
 Modes of Heat Transfer
 A heated substance will give off heat to another substance at lower
temperature.
 The different modes by which heat is transferred are Conduction,
Convection and Radiation.
A) Conduction
• In this mode of transfer of heat, one molecule of substance gets heated
and transfer the heat to adjacent one and so on.
• Thus heat is transferred through a substance from one part to another,
or between two substance in contact.

38
 Modes of Heat Transfer
B) Convection:
• Heat is transferred by convection in case of immersion type water
heater or in case of low temperature heating equipment for building.
• The air in contact with heated radiator element in room receives heat
from contact with element.
• Heated air expands and rises, cold air flowing into take its place.
• Thus there is constant flow of air upwards across heating element.
• This process is called as convection.

39
 Modes of Heat Transfer
C) Radiation :
• In this mode of heat transfer heat reaches the substance to be heated
from source of heat without heating the medium in between.

40
 Classification of Electric Heating Methods
 Electric heating can be broadly classified as

i) Power Frequency heating.

ii) High frequency heating.

41
 Heating methods

Power Frequency Methods High Frequency Methods

Resistance Arc Dielectric Induction

Heating Heating Heating Heating
Direct & Direct Arc &
Indirect Direct Induction
Indirect Arc
Heating & Indirect
Heating
Induction
Heating
42
 Resistance Heating
• Resistance heating based on based upon effect.
• This method of heating has wide application such as heat treatment of
metals (annealing, hardening), drying of potteries, commercial and
domestic cooking.
• Temperature up to about can be obtained in ovens employing wire
resistances for heating elements.
• There are two methods of resistance heating
a) Direct heating
b) Indirect heating.

43
Direct Heating
• In this method of heating, the material or
charge to be heated is taken as resistance and
current is passed through it.
• The charge may be in form of powder, pieces
or liquid.
• Two electrodes are immersed in charge and
connected to supply.
• When some pieces of metals are to be heated
some highly resistive powder is sprinkled over
surface to avoid direct short circuit.
• The current flows through the charge and heat
is produced.
44
Indirect Heating
• In this method of heating, current is passed
through a wire forming heating element.
• The heat is proportional to loss produced in
heating element is delivered to charge by one or
more modes of transfer via conduction,
convection and radiation.
• If heat is transfer by conduction the resistor
must be in contact with charge.
• An enclosure known as heating chamber is
required for heat transfer by radiation and
convection for charge.
• This arrangement provides a uniform
temperature.
• This method is used in room heaters, immersion
45
water heaters and in oven for cooking.
 Requirement of Resistance heating element
A material best suited for heating element should have following
properties
a) High Resistivity:
The material should have high specific resistance so that small
length of wire may sufficient to produce require amount of heat.
b) High melting point:
Melting point of material to be used for heating element should
be high, so that material can be heated to high temperature.
c) Low temperature coefficient:
Resistance of material should not vary with change in
temperature otherwise starting current would be high. 46
 Requirement of Resistance heating element
d) Free from oxidation:
material must withstand required temperature without getting
oxidised, otherwise it would have to be replaced frequently.
• The material commonly used for heating element for low and medium
temperature services are either alloy of nickel and chromium

47
 Design of Heating element
• In design of heating element for electric furnace, choice of element is
made on basis of temperature of furnace.
• The wattage P of furnace, voltage of supply V, absolute temperature
of charge being known,
• We required to find out diameter and length of wire.
P=
R= =
= ………..(i)

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 Design of Heating element
Surface area, S = πdl
Heat dissipated = πdl H
Since at steady temperature
Power input = heat dissipated
P = πdl H

…..(ii)
Substituting value of H from equation 4.5 in (ii) and solving it with (i),
we get value of d and L
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 Resistance ovens
• According to the operating temperatures, the resistance furnaces may
be classified into various types.
• Low-temperature heating chamber with the provision for ventilation
is called as oven.
• For drying varnish coating, the hardening of synthetic materials, and
commercial and domestic heating, etc., the resistance ovens are
employed.
• The operating temperature of medium temperature furnaces is
between 300°C and 1,050°C.

52
 Resistance ovens
• These are employed for the melting of nonferrous metals, stove
(annealing), etc.
• Furnaces operating at temperature between 1,050°C and 1,350°C are
known as high-temperature furnaces.
• These furnaces are employed for hardening applications.

53
 Resistance ovens

• Resistance oven consists of a heating chamber in which heating

elements are placed as shown in the Fig.
• The inner surface of the heating chamber is made to suit the character
of the charge and the type of furnace or oven.
• The type of insulation used for heating chamber is determined by the
maximum temperature of the heating chamber. 54
 Arc Heating
• If the high voltage is applied across an air gap, the air in the gap gets
ionized under the influence of electrostatic forces and becomes
conducting medium, current flows in the form of a continuous spark,
known as arc.
• A very high voltage is required to establish an arc but very small
voltage is sufficient to maintain it, across the air gap.
• The high voltage required for striking an arc can be obtained by using
a step-up transformer fed from a variable AC supply.
• Another method of striking the arc by using low voltage is by short
circuiting the two electrodes momentarily and with drawing them
back. 55
 Arc Heating
• Electrodes made up of carbon or graphite and are used in the arc
furnaces when the temperature obtained is in the range of 1,000–
3,500°C.
Electrodes used in the arc furnaces
• Normally used electrodes in the arc furnaces are carbon electrodes,
graphite electrodes, and self baking electrodes.
• Usually the carbon and graphite electrodes are used and they can be
selected based on their electrical conductivity insolubility, chemical
inertness, mechanical strength, resistance to thermal shock, etc.
• The size of these electrodes may be 18–27 cm in diameter.
56
 Arc Heating
• The carbon electrodes are used with small furnaces for manufacturing
of ferro-alloys, aluminum phosphorous, etc.

57
 The salient features of carbon and graphite electrodes are:
a) Resistivity:
The graphite electrodes have low-specific resistance than the
carbon electrodes, so the graphite required half in size for the same
current resulting in easy replacement.
b) Oxidation:
Graphite begins to oxides at 600°C where as carbon at 400°C.
c) Electrode consumption:
For steel-melting furnaces, the consumption of the carbon
electrodes is about 4.5 kg of electrodes per tonne of steel and 2.3–to 6.8
kg electrodes per tonne of steel for the graphite electrodes.
58
 The salient features of carbon and graphite electrodes are:
d) Cost:
The graphite electrodes cost about twice as much per kg as the
carbon electrodes. The choice of electrodes depends chiefly on the
question of the total cost. In general, if the processes requiring large
quantities of electrode, carbon is used but for other processes, the choice
depends on local conditions.

59
 Types of Arc Furnaces:

A) Direct Arc furnace

B) Indirect Arc furnace
• In direct arc furnaces, the arc is formed between electrodes and
charge.
• Indirect arc furnaces the arc is formed between the electrodes.
• Heat is transmitted to charge by radiation.

60
A) Direct Arc furnace :

• In direct arc furnaces charge acts as one of the electrodes.

• Charge is heated by producing arc between electrodes and charge.
• Arc is in direct contact with charge and heat also produced by flow of
current through charge itself, charge can be heated to highest
temperature.
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• In case of single phase arc furnace two electrodes are taken vertically
downward through roof of furnace to surface of charge.
• Three phase arc furnace three electrodes put at corners of an
equilateral triangle, project on charge through roof and three arc are
formed.
• The current passing through charge develops electromagnetic field
and necessary stirring action automatically obtained by it.
• Thus uniform heating is obtained.
• It is commonly used for production of steel.
• The usual size of such furnace is between 5 and 10 tonnes, through 50
and 100 tonne arc furnaces also been developed.

62
B) Indirect Arc furnace :

• In indirect arc furnace, the arc strikes between two electrodes by

bringing momentarily in contact and then with drawing them heat so
developed, due to the striking of arc across air gap is transferred to
charge is purely by radiation.
• These furnaces are usually l-φ and hence their size is limited by the
amount of one-phase load which can be taken from one point.
63
• There is no inherent stirring action provided in this furnace, as current
does not flow through the charge and the furnace must be rocked
mechanically.
• The electrodes are projected through this chamber at each end along
the horizontal axis.
• This furnace is also sometimes called as rocking arc furnace. The
charge in this furnace is heated not only by radiation from the arc
between electrode tips but also by conduction from the heated
refractory during rocking action; so, the efficiency of such furnace is
high.
• The arc is produced by bringing electrodes into solid contact and then
withdrawing them; power input to the furnace is regulated by
adjusting the arc length by moving the electrodes 64
• Even though it can be used in iron foundries where small quantities of
iron are required frequently, the main application of this furnace is the
melting of non-ferrous metals.

65
 High Frequency Heating
• The main difference between the power-frequency and the high-
frequency heating is that in the conventional methods, the heat is
transferred either by conduction convection or by radiation, but in the
high-frequency heating methods, the electromagnetic energy
converted into the heat energy in side the material.
• The high-frequency heating can be applied to two types of materials.
The heating of the conducting materials, such as ferro-magnetic and
non-ferro-magnetic, is known as induction heating.
• The process of heating of the insulating materials is known as
dielectric heating.
66
 Induction Heating
• The induction heating process makes use of the currents induced by
the electromagnetic action in the material to be heated.
• The heat developed depends on power drawn by charge.
• Power consequently depends upon voltage and resistance of charge,
because power drawn is equal to .
• So to develop heat sufficient to melt charge.
• Resistance of charge must be low, which possible only with metals
and voltage must be higher which is obtained by employing higher
flux and higher frequency.

67
• There are basically two types of induction furnaces and they are:

1. Core type or low-frequency induction furnace.

2. Coreless type or high-frequency induction furnace.

68
 Core type furnace

• The operating principle of the core type furnace is the electromagnetic

induction. This furnace is operating just like a transformer. It is
further classified as:
a) Direct core type furnace
b) Vertical core type

69
A) Direct core type Induction furnace :
• The core type furnace is essentially a transformer in which the charge
to be heated forms single turn secondary circuit and is magnetically
coupled to the primary by an iron core as shown in Fig

• The furnace consists of a circular hearth in the form of a trough,

which contains the charge to be melted in the form of an annular ring.
71
This type of furnace has the following characteristics:
• As magnetic coupling between primary & secondary circuit is poor.
• So leakage reactance is high & power factor is low.
• However this difficulty is overcoming by employing supply of
frequencies as low as 10 Hz for operation of such furnace.
• When there is no molten metal in the hearth, the secondary becomes
open circuited thereby cutting of secondary current. Hence, to start the
furnace, the molten metal has to be taken in the hearth to keep the
secondary as short circuit.
• For obtaining low frequency supply motor-generator set or frequency
changer is required which adds to extra cost.

72
• The crucible used for the charge is of odd shape and inconvenient
from the metallurgical viewpoint.
• If current density exceeds about 500 A/cm2, it will produce high-
electromagnetic forces in the molten metal and hence adjacent
molecules repel each other, as they are in the same direction.
• The repulsion may cause the interruption of secondary circuit
(formation of bubbles and voids); this effect is known as pinch effect.
• The pinch effect is also dependent on frequency; at low frequency,
this effect is negligible, and so it is necessary to operate the furnace at
low frequency.

73
• B) Vertical core type Induction furnace
B) Vertical core type Induction furnace :
• It is an improvement over the direct core type furnace, to overcome
some of the disadvantages mentioned above. This type of furnace
consists of a vertical core instead of horizontal core as shown in Fig.
• It is also known as Ajax–Wyatt induction furnace.

76
• The convection currents keep circulation of molten metal round V
portion.
• As V channel is narrow, so even small quantity of charge is sufficient
to keep secondary circuit closed.
• Hence chances of discontinuity of circuit is very less.
• Due to pinch effect the adjoining molecules carrying current in same
direction will try to repel each other, but because of weight of charge
they will remain in contact and chances of interruption will be
reduced.
• The output of furnace depends upon type and dimensions of channel
used.
• In certain furnaces instead V shaped channels U shaped channels or
rectangular channels are employed 77
• The inside of furnace is lined depend upon charge.
• Clay lining is used for yellow brass.
• For red brass and bronze an alloy of magnesia and alumina is
employed
• The shell of furnace is of heavy steel.
• The top of furnace is covered with an insulated cover which can be
removed for charging.
• Advantages:
1) Highly efficient heat, low operating cost.
2) Accurate temperature control, reduced metal losses.
3) Consistent performance & simple control.
4) Ideal working condition in cool atmosphere with no dirt, noise or
78
A) Indirect core type Induction furnace :
• In this furnace heat is transfer to charge by radiation.
• It consists of iron core linking with primary & secondary winding.
• Secondary consists of a metal container forming walls of oven proper.
• Primary winding is connected to supply, inducing currents and heating
metal container.

79
• Heat is transmitted to charge by radiation.
• It consists of part LM of magnetic circuit situated in oven chamber
and consists of special alloy which looses its magnetic properties at a
particular temperature and regains them when cooled to same
temperature.
• As soon as oven attains critical temperature, reluctance of magnetic
circuit increases many times and inductive effect correspondingly
decreases, there by cutting off heat supply.
• The bar LM is detachable type & can be replaced by others having
different critical temperature between 400 – 1000 degree Celsius
according to needs.
• It has low power factor.
80
Coreless type or High Frequency induction Furnace
Coreless type or High Frequency induction Furnace

82
• It is a simple furnace with the absence core is shown in Fig.
• In this furnace, heat developed in the charge due to eddy
currents flowing through it.
• The furnace consists of a refractory or ceramic crucible
cylindrical in shape enclosed within a coil that forms
primary of the transformer.
• The furnace also contains a conducting or non conducting
container that acts as secondary.

83
• If the container is made up of conducting material, charge
can be conducting or non conducting; whereas, if the
container is made up of non-conducting material, charge
taken should have conducting properties.
• When primary coils are excited by an alternating source, the
flux set up by these coils induce the eddy currents in the
charge.
• The direction of the resultant eddy current is in a direction
opposite to the current in the primary coil. These currents
heat the charge to melting point.
84
• The eddy currents developed in any magnetic circuit are

𝛂
given as:

Where = the maximum flux density (tesla)

f = the frequency in (Hz),
= eddy current loss (watts).

85
• In coreless furnace, the flux density will be low as there is
no core. Hence, the primary supply should have high
frequency for compensating the low flux density.
• If it is operating at high frequency, due to the skin effect, it
results copper loss, thereby increasing the temperature of
the primary winding.
• This necessitates in artificial cooling.
• The coil, therefore, is made of hollow copper tube through
which cold water is circulated.

86
• Standard size of coreless induction furnace for melting non-
ferrous metals and alloys range from 50 kg to 500 kg
holding capacity.
• In modern coreless induction furnaces the frequencies in
range of 500 – 1000 Hz are used.
• The refractory lining makes a large air gap (loose coupling)
so low power factor.

87
• Static capacitors are used in furnace in order to improve p.f.
• Following are the advantages of coreless furnace over the
other furnaces:
1. Ease of control.
2. Oxidation is reduced, as the time taken to reach the
melting temperature is less.
3. The cost is less for the erection and operation.
4. It can be used for heating and melting.
5. Any shape of crucible can be used.
6. It is suitable for intermittent operation
88
Eddy current Heating

89
• When current carrying conductor is wound on the soft iron
piece then a circulating current is produced in it by
electromagnetic induction it is called as Eddy current.
• This eddy current produces loss that is called as eddy
current loss.
• This loss produces heat in the soft iron piece and can be
used to heat the material.
• Since, the eddy current loss is proportional to the product of
square of supply frequency and flux density therefore high
frequency supply can be utilized to generate the heat.
90
• By controlling the frequency and the flux density the
amount of heat can be controlled.
• The articles to be heated are placed within a high frequency
current carrying coil, alternating magnetic field is set up.
• Eddy currents are induced in the article and heating is
therefore affected.
• High frequency current carrying coil is known as magnetic
coil or work coil.
• The material, which is to be heated, is known as load or
charge and the process employed is referred to as high
frequency eddy current heating 91
• The eddy current loss is primarily responsible for the
production of heat.
• The supply frequency is employed between 10,000 to
4,00,000 Hz.

92
• Following are the advantages of Eddy current heating
1. There is little wastage of heat, so heat is produced in body
to be heated directly.
2. It can directly used any place where conventional heating
are not possible.
3. The control of temperature is very easy.

93
• Application of high frequency eddy current heating :
1. Hardening.
2. Annealing.
(the process of softening steel by heating it to a temperature
near but below the transformation range and then cooling
slowly)
3. Soldering
( Soldering is a process used for joining metal parts to form a
mechanical or electrical bond )

94
 Dielectric Heating
• Dielectric heating is also known as radiofrequency heating
or electronic heating.
• When a non-metallic material such as wood, plastic, bone,
or ceramic is subjected to an alternating electrostatic field,
the dielectric loss occurs in it.
• This loss appears in the form of heat in dielectric heating.
• It is the basic dielectric heating principle.

95
Dielectric Heating

98
 Dielectric Heating
• A dielectric material has positively and negatively charged
ions.
• If we place such material between two electrodes and
charge them positive and negative, respectively, the
molecules will tend to line up all in one direction.
• If we reverse the charge on the electrodes, they will tend to
flip around and line up in the opposite direction.

99
 Dielectric Heating
• Reversing the charge causes the molecules to rub against
one another.
• This process produces ‘frictional’ heating in the material.
• The rate of heating will increase as the frequency of reversal
is increased..
• The same phenomenon takes place in a material during the
dielectric heating.

100
 Dielectric Heating
• When we apply a high-frequency voltage across a material
during the dielectric heating, its molecules line up again and
again.
• In doing so, they rub against one another and produces
frictional heating.
• As the frequency of reversal of the field (i.e., supply
frequency) is very high, a large amount of heat is produced.

101
 Dielectric Heating
• In this process, the material to be heated is placed as a slab
between two metallic electrodes across which high-
frequency voltage is applied.
• The applied voltage varies from 10 to 20 kV.
• To ensure sufficient loss and to give an adequate amount of
heating, frequencies between 10 to 20 MHz must be used.
• At higher frequencies, we can obtain better heating
efficiencies and better coupling. So the higher frequencies
are very suitable for low volume products and low coupling
materials. 102
 Advantages of Dielectric Heating
• The heating of the non-conducting materials is very rapid.
• The uniform heating of material is possible.
• Heat is produced in the whole mass of the material.

103
 Application of Dielectric Heating
• The drying of paper, wood, etc.
• The gluing of wood.
• The heat-sealing of plastic sheets.
• The heating for the general processing such as coffee
roasting and chocolate industry
• The heating for the dehydration such as milk, cream, and
vegetables.
• The heating of bones and tissues.
104
 Welding
• Welding is the process of joining two pieces of metal
together by heating them to their melting point.

• Filler metal may or may not be used to join two pieces.

• The physical and mechanical properties of a material to be

welded such as melting temperature, density, thermal
conductivity, and tensile strength take an important role in
welding.
105
 Welding
• Depending upon how the heat applied is created; we get
different types of welding such as thermal welding, gas
welding, and electric welding.
• Welding is nowadays extensively used in automobile
industry, pipe-line fabrication in thermal power plants,
machine repair work, machine frames, etc.

106
 Advantages of Welding
• Welding is the most economical method to permanently join
two metal parts.
• It provides design flexibility.
• Welding equipment is not so costly.
• It joins all the commercial metals.
• Both similar and dissimilar metals can be joined by
welding.
• Portable welding equipment are available.
107
 Disadvantages Welding
• Welding gives out harmful radiations and fumes.
• Welding needs internal inspection.
• If welding is not done carefully, it may result in the
distortion of work piece.
• Skilled welding is necessary to produce good welding.

108
 Types Welding
• There are many ways to make a weld and there are many
kinds of welding like gas welding, Resistance welding, Arc
welding, Thermal welding, solid state welding

• But in this unit we will only discuss about Electric welding

(Resistance welding and Arc welding)

109
 Electric Welding
• It is defined as the process of joining two metal pieces, in
which the electrical energy is used to generate heat at the
point of welding in order to melt the joint.

110
Types of Electric Welding

111
Resistance Welding

112
 Resistance Welding
• It is process in which a sufficiently strong current is sent
through two metals pieces in contact to be welded which
melts metals by resistance they offer to flow of electric
current.
• In resistance welding current above 100 A at low voltage is
passed directly through workpiece and heat is developed by
resistance to flow of current.
• The heat is given by expression .
• Heat is developed at contact areas between pieces to be
welded reduces the metal to plastic state. 113
 Resistance Welding
• Pieces are then pressed together to complete weld.
• Two copper electrodes are used in circuit of low resistance
and metals to be welded are pressed between electrodes.
• Electrical voltage required ranges from 4 -12 V depending
upon composition, area, thickness of metal pieces to be
welded.
• The amount of power supplied to weld usually ranges from
about 60 to 180 watts for each sq.mm of area.
114
 Resistance Welding
• AC current is most suitable for resistance welding as it can
provide desired combination of current & voltage by using
transformer.
• Resistance to flow of current is made of
1) Resistance of current path in work.
2) Resistance between contact surfaces of parts being welded
3) Resistance between electrodes and surface of parts being
welded.
115
 Resistance Welding
• The electrical circuit diagram for the resistance welding is
shown in Fig. 5.2. This method of welding consists of a tap-
changing transformer, a clamping device for holding the
metal pieces, and some sort of mechanical arrangement for
forcing the pieces to form a complete weld.

116
117
• Advantages:
1. Welding process is rapid and simple.
2. No need of using filler metal.
3. Both similar and dissimilar metals can be welded.
4. Comparatively lesser skill is required.
5. Maintenance cost is less.
6. It can be employed for mass production.

118
• Disadvantages:
1. Initial cost is very high.
2. The work piece with heavier thickness cannot be welded,
since it requires high input current.

• Application
1. It is used by many industries manufacturing products
made up of thinner gauge metals.
2. It is used for the manufacturing of tubes and smaller
structural sections.
119
 Types of Resistance Welding
• Depending upon the method of weld obtained and the type
of electrodes used, the resistance welding is classified as:
1. Spot welding.
2. Seam welding.
3. Projection welding.
4. Butt welding.
120
Spot Welding

121
 Spot Welding
• Spot welding is form of resistance welding in which parts or
pieces are joined in spots, accompanied by heated relatively
very small sections of parts or pieces between suitable
electrodes under pressure
• Spot welding is usually used for joining of fabricating sheet
metal structure
• This type of welding only provide mechanical strength and
is neither air tight nor water tight.
• Workpiece to be welded are pressed together by mechanical
pressure exerted through electrodes. 123
 Spot Welding
• Then supply is switched on for particular period.
• The mechanical pressure may be exerted by foot lever or by
air pressure or by hydraulic cylinders.
• The metal in zone of pressure gets up heated to fusion and
joint thus made gets cooled under pressure.
• The pressure remains applied till weld cools and regains
sufficient strength.
• Current required is above 5000 A and voltage between
electrode is usually less than 2 volts.
124
 Spot Welding
• The time period of flow of current varies widely depending
upon thickness and strength of metal.
• In order to avoid electrode sticking it is necessary to avoid
heating of junction faces between electrodes and work.
• It can be achieved by water cooled electrodes and by
employing electrodes made of material having high
electrical and thermal conductivity.
• In order to avoid wear and tear at tip of electrodes,
electrodes should have high mechanical strength.
125
 Spot Welding
• Efficient spot welds are possible only by a correct combination
of current, pressure and welding time.
• Since the heat developed being proportional to the product of
welding time and square of the current.
• Good weld can be obtained by low currents for longer duration
and high currents for shorter duration; longer welding time
usually produces stronger weld but it involves high energy
expenditure, electrode maintenance, and lot of distortion of work
piece.
126
Projection Welding

127
 Projection Welding
• Projection welding is resistance welding process that
produces coalescence by heat obtained from resistance to
flow of welding current.
• Projection welding is same as that of spot welding, only
difference is that electrodes used are flat on ends and larger
in diameter than electrodes used in spot welding.
• Successful projection welding depends upon greatly on
surface preparation of pieces to be welded.
• Projection, small deformations that will touch surface of
material to be welded, are made on weld areas. 129
 Projection Welding
• Main advantage of this welding is that welding area easily
located.
• As current flows through two parts to be welded, projected
points are main contact area.
• Whenever point or projection touches metal, a welding will
start.
• These weld points soon reaches plastic state, and force
applied by electrodes finishes the welding
130
 Projection Welding
• Projection welding, so spot welding needs no protective
atmosphere to produce successful result.

131
 Projection Welding
• The projection welding has the following advantages over
the spot welding.
1. Simplicity in welding process.
2. It is easy to weld some of the parts where the spot welding
is not possible.
3. It is possible to join several welding points.
4. Welds are located automatically by the position of
projection.
5. As the electrodes used in the projection welding are flat
type, the contact area over the projection is sufficient. 132
Seam Welding

133
 Seam Welding
• Seam welding can be defined as series of continuous spot
welds.
• This process is employed for making a continuous joint between
two overlapping pieces of sheet metal.
• In this process work to be welded is placed between two wheels
which apply sufficient mechanical pressure and also carry
sufficient current for producing continuous welds.
• The mechanical pressure applied is kept constant and current is
regulated by a timer.
135
 Seam Welding
• As the pressure applied, drive is started, welding current
switched on and continuously overlapping surfaces of metal
are forced together as fast as they are heated.
• The heat generated due to flow of current through resistance
in welding circuit.
• The heat generated can be controlled by either varying
current or pressure between sheets which varies contact
resistance.
• If rate of heat generation is high then speed of rollers is
increases thereby reducing welding time & viceversa. 136
 Seam Welding
• The electrodes are made of copper and are water circulated
in order to dissipate heat from them.
• This type of welding is very important as it provides tight or
leak proof joint.
• For this welding surfaces to be welded are cleaned and dust
& durt free.
• Seam welding is employed for welding pipes, conduits,
tanks, transformer, aircrafts and various types of containers.

137
Upset Butt Welding

138
 Upset Butt Welding
• In upset welding, the two metal parts to be welded are
joined end to end and are connected across the secondary of
a welding transformer.
• Due to the contact resistance of the metals to be welded,
heating effect is generated in this welding.
• When current is made to flow through the two electrodes,
heat will develop due to the contact resistance of the two
pieces and then melts.
• By applying high mechanical pressure either manually or by
toggle mechanism, the two metal pieces are pressed 139
Flash Butt Welding

140
 Flash Butt Welding
• Flash butt welding is a combination of resistance, arc, and
pressure welding.
• In this method of welding, the two pieces to be welded are
brought very nearer to each other under light mechanical
pressure. These two pieces are placed in a conducting movable
clamps.
• When high current is passed through the two metal pieces and
they are separated by some distance, then arc established
between them.

142
 Flash Butt Welding
• This arc or flashing is allowed till the ends of the
workpieces reach melting temperature, the supply will be
switched off and the pieces are rapidly brought together
under light pressure.
• As the pieces are moved together, the fused metal and slag
come out of the joint making a good solid joint.

143
 Electric Arc Welding
• Electric arc welding is the process of joining two metallic
pieces or melting of metal is obtained due to the heat
developed by an arc struck between an electrode and the
metal to be welded or between the two electrodes.
• In this process, an electric arc is produced by bringing two
conductors (electrode and metal piece) connected to a
suitable source of electric current, momentarily in contact
and then separated by a small gap, arc blows due to the
ionization and give intense heat.
144
 Electric Arc Welding
• The heat so developed is utilized to melt the part of
workpiece and filler metal and thus forms the weld.
• In this method of welding, no mechanical pressure is
employed; therefore, this type of welding is also known as
'non-pressure welding’.
• For the arc welding, the temperature of the arc should be
3,600°C. At this temperature, mechanical pressure for
melting is not required.

145
 Electric Arc Welding
• Both AC and DC can be used in the arc welding.
• Usually 70–100 V on AC supply and 50–60 V on DC
supply system is sufficient to struck the arc in the air gap
between the electrodes. Once the arc is struck, 20–30 V is
only required to maintain it.
• However, in certain cases, there is any danger of electric
shock to the operator, low voltage should be used for the
welding purpose.
• Thus, DC arc welding of low voltage is generally preferred.
146
 Electric Arc Welding
• Electric arc welding is extensively used for the joining of
metal parts, the repair of fractured casting, and the fillings
by the deposition of new metal on base metal, etc.
• Various types of electric arc welding are:
1. Carbon arc welding.
2. Metal arc welding.
3. Atomic hydrogen arc welding.
4. Inert gas metal arc welding.
5. Submerged arc welding.
147
Carbon Arc Welding

148
 Carbon Arc Welding
• It is one of the processes of arc welding in which arc is
struck between two carbon electrodes or the carbon
electrode and the base metal.
• In this process of welding, the electrodes are placed in an
electrode holder used as negative electrode and the base
metal being welded as positive.
• Unless, the electrode is negative relative to the work, due to
high temperature, there is a tendency of the particles of
carbon will fuse and mix up with the base metal, which
causes brittleness 149
 Carbon Arc Welding
• DC is preferred for carbon arc welding since there is no
fixed polarity maintained in case of AC.
• In the carbon arc welding, carbon or graphite rods are used
as electrode. Due to longer life and low resistance, graphite
electrodes are used, and thus capable of conducting more
current.
• The arc produced between electrode and base metal; heat
the metal to the melting temperature, on the negative
electrode is 3,200°C and on the positive electrode is
3,900°C. 150
 Carbon Arc Welding
• This process of welding is normally employed where
addition of filler metal is not required.
• The carbon arc is easy to maintain, and also the length of
the arc can be easily varied.
• Filler metal and flux may not be used depending upon the
type of joint and material to be welded.

151
 Advantages of Carbon Arc Welding
• The heat developed during the welding can be easily
controlled by adjusting the length of the arc.
• It is quite clean, simple, and less expensive when compared
to other welding process.
• Easily adoptable for automation.
• Both the ferrous and the non-ferrous metals can be welded

152
 Disadvantages of Carbon Arc Welding
• Input current required in this welding, for the workpiece to
rise its temperature to melting/welding temperature, is
approximately double the metal arc welding.
• In case of the ferrous metal, there is a chance of
disintegrating the carbon at high temperature and transfer to
the weld, which causes harder weld deposit and brittlement.
• A separate filler rod has to be used if any filler metal is
required.

153
Metal Arc Welding

154
 Metal Arc Welding
• In metal arc welding, the electrodes used must be of the
same metal as that of the work-piece to be welded.
• The electrode itself forms the filler metal. An electric arc is
stuck by bringing the electrode connected to a suitable
source of electric current, momentarily in contract with the
workpieces to be welded and withdrawn apart.
• The arc produced between the workpiece and the electrode
results high temperature of the order of about 2,400°C at
negative metal electrode and 2,600°C at positive base metal
or workpiece 155
 Metal Arc Welding
• This high temperature of the arc melts the metal as well as
the tip of the electrode, then the electrode melts and
deposited over the surface of the workpiece, forms complete
weld.
• Both AC and DC can be used for the metal arc welding. The
voltage required for the DC metal arc welding is about 50–
60 V and for the AC metal arc welding is about 80–90 V
• In order to maintain the voltage drop across the arc less than
13 V, the arc length should be kept as small as possible,
otherwise the weld will be brittle. 156
 Metal Arc Welding
• The current required for the welding varies from 10 to 500
A depending upon the type of work to be welded.
• The main disadvantage in the DC metal arc welding is the
presence of arc blow, i.e., distortion of arc stream from the
intended path due to the magnetic forces of the non-uniform
magnetic field with AC arc blow is considerably reduced.
• For obtaining good weld, the flux-coated electrodes must be
used, so the metal which is melted is covered with slag
produces a non oxidizing gas or a molten slag to cover the
weld, and also stabilizes the arc. 157
 Type of Welding Electrodes
• An electrode is a piece of metal in the form of wire or rod
that is either bare or coated uniformly with flux.
• Electrode carries current for the welding operation. One
contact end of the electrode must be clean and is inserted
into the electrode holder, an arc is set up at the other end.

158
Type of Welding Electrodes

159
 Non-consumable electrodes
• Electrodes, which do not consume or fuse during the
welding process, are called non consumable electrodes.
• Ex: Electrodes made up of carbon, graphite, or tungsten do
not consume during welding.

160
 Consumable electrodes
• Electrodes, which are consumed during the welding
operation, are consumable electrodes.
• These are made up of various materials depending upon
their purpose and the chemical composition of metal to be
welded.
• The consumable electrodes are made in the form of rod
having diameter of about 2–8 mm and length of about 200–
500 mm.
• They act as filler rod and are consumed during welding
operation. 161
 Bare electrodes
• These are the consumable electrodes, which are not coated with
any fluxing material.
• Bare electrodes are in the form of wire. During welding
operation, an arc is struck between the workpiece and the
electrode wire, then the electrode is melted down into the weld.
• When the molten metal electrode and the workpiece are exposed
to the atmosphere of oxygen and nitrogen, they form their oxides
and nitrides and cause the formation of some non-metallic
constituent, which reduces the strength and ductility of the
deposited weld
162
• The bare electrodes are usually employed in automatic and
semi automatic welding.
• With bare electrode, the welding can be done satisfactorily
with DC supply only if the electrode should be connected to
the negative terminal of the supply

163
 Coated electrodes
• Depending upon the thickness of flux coating, the coated
electrode may classified into:
1. lightly coated electrodes and
2. heavily coated electrodes.
• For obtaining good weld, the coated electrodes are always
preferred.

164
 (i) Lightly coated electrodes
• These electrodes are coated with thin layer of coating
material up to less than 1 mm.
• This coating is usually consists of lime mixed with soluble
glass which serves as a binder.
• These electrodes are considered as improvement over bare
electrodes.
• The main purpose of using the light coating layer on the
electrode is to increase the arc stability, so they are also
called as stabilizing coatings.
165
• No attempt is made to prevent oxidation and no slag is
formed on weld nor mechanical properties of weld metal
improved.
• For this reason, lightly coated electrodes may only be used
for welding non-essential work pieces.

166
 (ii) Heavy coated electrodes
• These electrodes have coating layer with heavy thickness.
• The heavily coated electrodes sometimes referred to as the
shielded arc electrodes.
• The materials commonly used for coating the electrodes are
titanium oxide, ferromanganese, silica, flour, asbestos clay,
calcium carbonate, etc.
• This electrode coating helps in improving the quality of
weld, as if the coating layer of the electrodes burns in the
heat of the arc provides gaseous shield around the arc,
which prevents the formation oxides and nitrites.. 167
• Advantages of Heavy coated Electrodes
• Arc is stabilized due to the flux compounds of sodium and potassium.
• The weld metal can be protected from the oxidizing action of oxygen
and the nitrifying action of nitrogen due to the gas shielded envelope.
• The electrode coating increases deposition efficiency and weld metal
deposition rate through iron powder and ferro alloy addition.
• The welding operation becomes faster due to the increased melting
rate.
• The coated electrodes help to deoxidize and refine the weld metal.

168
 Comparison between Resistance welding & Arc welding
Resistance welding Arc welding
The source of supply is AC only. The source of supply is either AC (1-φ or
3-φ) or DC.
The head developed is mainly due to the The heat developed is mainly due to the
flow of contact resistance. striking of arc between electrodes or an
electrode and the workpiece
The temperature attained by the The temperature of the arc is so high, so
workpiece proper care should be taken
is not so high. during the welding.
Filler metal is not required to join two Suitable filler electrodes are necessary to
metal pieces. get proper welding strength
The power consumption is low. The power consumption is high.
169
 Comparison between Resistance welding & Arc welding
Resistance welding Arc welding
The operating power factor is low. The operating power factor is high.

External pressure is required. No external pressure is required hence

the welding equipment is more
simple and easy to control.

Bar, roller, or flat type electrodes are Bare or coated electrodes are used
used (consumable or non-consumable).
(not consumable).

170
 Comparison between DC welding & AC welding
DC welding AC welding
Motor generator set or rectifier is AC suppply transformer is required.
required in case of the availability of AC
supply.
The cost of the equipment is high. The cost of the equipment is cheap

The heat produced is uniform The heat produced is not uniform

The operating power factor is high. The power factor is low. So, the
capacitors are necessary to improve the
power factor.
Electrode cost is cheaper Electrode cost is Expensive
171
Safety Precautions

172
 Welding Equipment's Accessories for protection and safety

• Gloves:

• Helmets:

• Jackets

• Glasses

173
 Welding Equipment's Accessories for protection and safety

• Slag hammer:

• Pliers:

• Wire brush:

174
 Unit 3
Electrical Drives and Elevators

175
 Introduction
• Motor control is required in large number of industrial and
domestic applications such as
• transportation systems, rolling mills, paper machines, textile
mills, machine tools, fans, pumps,
• robots, and washing machines. Systems employed for
motion control are called drives and may employ any of the
prime movers.
• Drives employing electric motors are known as electric
drives.
176
 Introduction
• Electric drive becomes more popular because of its simplicity,
reliability, cleanliness, easiness, and smooth control.
• Both AC and DC motors are used as electric drives; however, the
AC system is preferred because:
• It is cheaper.
• It can be easily transmitted with low-line losses.
• It can be easy to maintain the voltage at consumer premises
within prescribed limits.
• It is possible to increase or decrease the voltage without
appreciable loss of power. 177
 Introduction
• In spite of the advantages of AC motor, sometimes DC
motor is used because:
• The speed control of DC motors is easy rather than AC;
thus, for variable speed applications such as lif the DC
motors are preferred.
• DC series motor is suited for traction work because of high
starting torque.

178
 Advantages of Electric drive
• Electric drive is more flexible.
• It is more economical.
• It is more clean as there is no fumes.
• It occupies less space as compared to other forms of drives.
• Its operating characteristics can easily modified.
• It can be remote controlled.
• It require less maintenance.
• It has long life.
• It had easy starting. 179
 Basic block diagram of Electric Drive

Power
Source Motor Load
Modulator

Control unit Sensing unit

Input command 180

 Factors governing selection of Electric drives:
A) Nature of Electric supply (AC or DC)
Whether supply available is AC (single phase or three
phase) or D.C (pure D.C. or rectified A.C.)to be utilized for
motor.

B) Nature of drive:
Whether motor is to drive individual machine or a
group of machines.

181
C) Electrical characteristics of motor.
• Starting characteristics.
• Running characteristics.
• Speed control.
• Braking characteristics

D) Size and rating of motors.

whether motor is to run continuously, intermittently or
on load cycle. Whether over load capacity and pull torque are
sufficient
182
E) Mechanical consideration
• Type of enclosures.
• Type of bearings.
• Transmission of drive
• Noise level

F) Cost.
• Capital cost.
• Running cost.
183
G) Nature of Load
• Whether the load requires light or heavy starting torque.
• Whether load torque increases with speed or remains
constant.

184
 Types of Electric Drive
• Various types of Electric drives used in industries are
divided into three types;

A) Group Drive
B) Individual Drive
C) Multi-motor Drive

185
 Group Drive
• A drive in which a single electric motor drives a line shaft
by means of which an entire group of working machines is
operated.
• It is also called as line shaft drive.
• The line shaft is fitted with multi stepped pulleys and belts
that connect these pulleys and shafts of driven machines and
serves to vary speed.
• This drive is economical in consideration.

186
 Advantages of Group Drive
• The cost of installation is less. For example, if the power
requirement of each machine is 10 HP and there are five
machines in the group, then the cost of five motors will be
more than one 50-HP motor.
• If it is operated at rated load, the efficiency and power factor
of large group drive motor will be high.
• The maintenance cost of single large capacity motor is less
than number of small capacity motors.
188
 Advantages of Group Drive
• It is used for the processes where the stoppage of one
operation necessitates the stoppages of sequence of
operations as incase of textile mills.
• It has overload capacity.

189
 Disadvantages of Group Drive
• If there is any fault in the main motor, all the machines
connected to the motor will fail to operate; thereby, paralyzing a
part of industry until the fault is removed.
• Considerable power loss takes place in energy transmitting
mechanism.
• The possibility of the installation of additional machines in an
existing industry is limited.
• The level of noise produced at the work site is quite large.
• The speed control of different machines using belts and pulleys
is difficult.
190
 Individual Drive
• A single electric drive is used to drive a individual machine.
• Examples of such drive is various types of electric hand
tools and metal working machine tools.
• Though its cost is more than group drive but operator has
complete control of his machines.
• It enables complete control of speed of machine and stop
when machine is not in use thus eliminating no load losses.
• The machine can be placed at any position and can be
moved very easily.
191
 Individual Drive
• For driving heavy machines such as lifts, cranes, lathes etc
and for the purpose where constancy of speed and flexibility
of control is required such as in paper mills, textile industry
individual drive is essential.
• For new factories individual drives preferred, as it causes
some saving in cost of superstructure, lighter and less
expensive.
• In individual drive energy is transmitted to different parts
such as gears, pulleys.
• Thus some power loss is occurred in energy transmission mechanism.
192
 Advantages of Individual Drive
• It is more clean and safety.
• Machines can be located at convenient places.
• If there is a fault in one motor, the output and operation of
the other motors will not be effected.
• The continuity in the production of the industry is ensured
to a higher degree.
• Individual drive is preferred for new factories, as it causes
some saving in the cost.
. 193
 Disadvantages of Individual Drive
• Initial cost will be high.
• Power loss is high..
.

194
 Multimotor Drive
• In multi-motor drives, several separate motors are provided
for operating different parts of the same machine.
• For example in travelling cranes, there are three motors, one
for hoisting, another for long travel motion, third for cross
travel motor.
• Such drive is essential in complicated metal cutting
machines, paper making machines, rolling mills, rotary
printing machines

195
 Multimotor Drive
• The use of individual drive and multimotor drives has
enabled introduction of automation in production processes
which in turn increased productivity of various industrial
organisations.

196
 Mechanical features of Enclosure
• Enclosure is necessary for motors for following puproses:
i) To protect operating personal from live parts of motor like
winding terminals, slip rings, brushes etc.
ii) To protect motor against foreign body and severe
conditions
iii) In many cases motor has to operate in an atmosphere
covered with dust, dirt, presence of water or moisture. So
inner parts of motor should be protected from such things.
iv) Also some solid parts like spanner, nut bolts etc may enter
motor when operator is doing some work on the machine.198
 Types of Enclosure
• In order to protect machines against the ingress of dirt and
dust or larger foreign bodies like spanners, vermin etc. into
it, it is desirable that some suitable enclosure be provided.
• The purpose of providing enclosure is twofold—firstly
providing protection to persons against contact with live or
moving parts inside the enclosure and protection to ma­
chines against the ingress of solid foreign bodies, and sec­
ondly providing protection to machines against harmful
ingress of water.
199
 1) Open type Enclosure
• The bearings are supported on simple pedestals or end
brackets.
• This type of enclosure does not protect the machines against
dust, dirt and larger foreign bodies but facilitates in cooling.
• The machines of this type are usually large dc generators
and dc motors, which are installed in a neat and clean
separate room such as in case of power stations, substations,
rolling mills.
200
 1) Open type Enclosure
• Because all the moving parts are exposed, hand rail and
other suitable rail guards are provided to prevent
unauthorized persons coming into contact specially with
moving parts.

202
 2) Protected type Enclosure
• Protected type machines are such in which access to live
and rotating parts is so limited as to prevent accidental
contact with such parts or ingress of foreign bodies while
ventilation is not materially obstructed. Protected type
motors are used mostly for industrial purposes.

203
 3) Screen Protected type Enclosure
• In this type of machines openings provided for ventilation
are covered with wire screen, expanded metal or other
suitable perforated covers.
• Though such an enclosure does not protect the motor
against dirt and dust but larger bodies and big insects cannot
enter into the machine. Such motors are very widely
employed for most of industrial applications where dry
clean conditions prevail and gas or chemical fumes are not
present.
204
 3) Screen Protected type Enclosure
• A screen-protected motor in which no attempt has been
made to exclude dust from the windings.
• It is suitable for most forms of electric drive and permits
ample ventilation.

205
 4) Drip proof type Enclosure
• In such machines openings provided for ventilation are so
protected by overhanging cowls that liquid drops or dust
particles falling on the machine vertically cannot enter the
machine.
• Such motors are used in damp situations such as for
pumping sets.
• A drip-proof motor, similar to the screen-protected type, but
having protection against dripping moisture.

208
209
 5) Splash proof type Enclosure
• In such machines the ventilating openings are so
constructed that liquid drops or dust particles falling on the
machine or coming towards it in a straight line at any angle
not greater than 100° from the vertical cannot enter the
machine. Such motor can be used in rains

210
 6) Totally Enclosed type Enclosure
• Such machines have solid frames and end shields but no
opening for ventilation.
• In such machines no dirt or foreign matter can enter the
motor.
• These machines are used in situations where dust, water, oil,
chemicals, gases or other injurious substances are likely to
enter the machine but natural cooling is sufficient such as
for driving coal handling plant, saw mills etc.

212
 6) Totally Enclosed type Enclosure
• In these machines due to cooling difficulties the output
obtainable is only about 50 to 70% of that obtainable from a
protected type of same dimensions and for same
temperature rise.

213
 7) Totally Enclosed, Fan cooled type
• In order to assist in heat dissipation, most of the
manufacturers have developed totally enclosed fan cooled
motors in which an outer casing is built around the motor
and air is blown by means of a fan mounted on the shaft
between the casing and external surface of the motor.
• Such motors are used in saw mills, flour mills, cement
works etc.
• These motors are not water proof and should not be used in
places likely to be submerged
215
 8) Pipe ventilated type
• These are totally enclosed type machines in which to
overcome the heat dissipation difficulties, a duct or pipe is
provided through which clean air is led to the motor.
• The cost of the piping may be overweighed by the saving in
cost of motor, as motor of smaller size can be used with
same output.
• Fresh clean air is brought to the motor by piping and drawn
in through a big inlet and air is then taken away by pipe,

217
 9) Flame Proof type
• The flame proof type machine is provided enclosure
designed and constructed to withstand an explosion of the
gas or vapour which may occur within it and to prevent the
ignition of the gas or vapour surrounding the machine.
• The ventilating openings in the machine are made long
enough for the flame to be contained within the frame.
• Flame proof type motors are used in collieries, petroleum
sta­tions or chemical plants.

218
 Transmission of Mechanical Power
• Mechanical power developed at motor shaft has to
transmitted to machine or machines.
• There are methods of mechanical power transmission.
a) Direct drive
b) Belt drive
c) Rope drive
d) Chain drive
e) Gear drive
220
 a) Direct drive
• Driving member is connected direct to driven member,
without any gearing by means of solid or flexible coupling.
• It is simplest method, space required is less than other drive
and efficiency is 100 %.
• Solid coupling requires very accurate aligning otherwise
there is possibility of damage to shafts.
• Flexible coupling can accommodate some angular, lateral
vertical misalignment.

221
 a) direct drive
• This type of drive is employed where there is a possibility
of arranging driven member in line with driven member and
where speed of driven member is same as that of driven
member.

222
 b) Belt drive
• These are least expensive drives.
• These are employed where a speed change is desired in
transmission of power.
• Belt drive is two types namely
1) Flat belt drive
2) V belt drive

223
 1) Flat Belt drive
• It is long distance drive.
• Belts used for drive are made of woven cotton, rubberized
cotton, nylon and leather.
• The leather belt drive is most economical type of drive.
• In horizontal belt drive slack side of belt should be kept
preferably on top, so natural sag increases arc of contact on
two pulleys.

224
• Advantages of Flat belt drive:
1) Greater flexibility in original design and new arrangement
of old apparatus can be made at any time.
2) It can provide any speed ratio and permits use of high
speed motors.
3) The tendency of slipping under heavy load , is often
beneficial that it will absorb portion of shock of suddenly
applied loads and thus protect.

226
• Disadvantages of Flat belt drive:
1) Considerable space is required.
2) Belts exerts a side pull on bearings which results in friction
so loss of power.

227
 1) V Belt drive
• It is short centre, silent drive with negligible slip.
• Such type of drive is suitable for motors of ratings upto 450
kW.
• Power transmitted depend upon size of belt, speed of belt,
the size sheaves and arc of contact on smaller sheave.
• They are characterized as belts having a trapezium cross-
section.
• V-belts are the most widely used belt drives since their
geometry causes them to wedge tightly into the groove as
the tension is increased. 228
 c) Rope drive
• Drive means of ropes running over pulleys having number
of grooves.
• It is used for power ranges beyond limit of V belt drive.
• Main advantages of rope drive are negligible slip and ability
of taking sudden loads.
• This type of drive is coming into use on small and medium
sized machines.

231
 d) Chain drive
• Chain drive is more costlier than belt and rope drive but it is
more efficient.
• It can be used for high speed ratio and has no slip.
• It can used conveniently for drives involving upto 12 or
more parallel shafts.
• It is particularly suitable for damp and dirty conditions
because chain case protects drive from outside influence.
• This method is suitable for speeds up to 900 m/minute
without any slipping.
233
 e) Gear drive
• It is short positive drive.
• It is very important to have proper alignment otherwise it
may bent motor shaft.
• It is first form of power transmission in early steam driving
mills.

235
 f) Vertical drive
• In this type of drive motor is arranged with its vertical axis.
• The axis of rotation is thus vertical.
• The examples of vertical drive is water turbine used in
power plants and in washing machines.

237
 Size & rating of motor
• The selection of motor for particular drive application based
on the size of motor depends upon the following two
factors:
a)Maximum temperature raise for a given load.
b) Maximum torque required.
• The size of motor and its rating are mainly dependent upon
the raise in temperature.
• The temperature raise in turn depends upon the type of
insulation used.
238
 Size & rating of motor
• Temperature raise of motor mainly depend upon losses
takes place in any motor will be converted into heat.
• The heat thus produced will increase the temperature of
various parts of the motor.

239
• The machines according to ISI specification are
classified as
A) Continuous rating
By Continuous Duty Motor rating one means that it is
the maximum load that the motor can give contin­uously over a
period of time, without exceeding the temperature rise. Ex:
fan, compressors, conveyors
B) Short-time rating
• This is an output which an electric machine can deliver for
specified period. Ex: servomotors, motor–generator sets,
used for charging batteries, drilling machines, etc 240
C) Intermittent rating
This is similar to short time rating but only difference is that in
this case on load time and off load time is same. Ex crane,
lifts.

D) Continuous operation with short time rating

• Interval between two load is not off load but motor runs on
no load conditions.
• Cooling system of motor is carry away heat during no load
intervals
241
E) Continuous operation with short time rating
In continuous operation with intermittent load is just similar to
intermittent load except that off load period is replaced by no
load interval.

242
 Classification of loads with respect to duty cycle
• Continuous duty cycle.
• Short-time duty cycle.
• Intermittent duty cycle.

243
 Continuous duty cycle
• Continuous duty is the duty when the on-period is so long that
the motor attains a steady-state temperature raise.
• The motor so selected should be able to withstand momentary
overload capacity.
• This type of motors will have high efficiency because they will
be operating almost at its full load and also have good power
factor.

244
• In continuous duty cycle, the load torque remains constant for a
sufficiently longer period.
• The variation of torque against time for continuous duty is
shown in Fig. Ex: Conveyors, compressors, fan, etc. in which
continuous duty at constant load occurs.

245
Short time duty cycle
• In this type of duty, the load occurs on the motor during a
small interval and the remains idle for long time to re-
establish the equality of temperature with the cooling
medium.

247
• Usually, such type of short-time duty occurs in bridges, lock
gates, and some other household appliances such as mixies

248
 Intermittent duty cycle
• The duty in which load on the motor varies periodically in a
sequence of identical cycles shown in Fig., in which motor
is loaded for sometimes ‘ton’ and shut off for a period of
‘toff’

249
 Load Equalization
• The load fluctuations take place in many of the industrial
drives such as rolling mills, planning machines presses, and
reciprocating pumps, where the load on the motor varies
widely within a span of few seconds.
• The sudden and peak load requires very large current from
the supply results high voltage drop in the system or
alternately would require very large size of cables.
• It is very essential to smooth out fluctuating load is known
as ‘load equalization’.
250
 Load Equalization
• The load equalization involves the storage of energy during
the off-peak period and gives out during the peak load
period.
• Load equalization process is commonly achieved by means
of a flywheel.
• A flywheel is nothing but a big wheel that is mounted on the
same shaft of motor, if the speed of the motor is not to be
reversed or a heavy rotating body that acts as a reservoir for
absorbing and redistributing stored energy is also known as
flywheel. 251
 Function of Flywheel
• To operate the flywheel efficiently, the driving motor should
have drooping speed characteristics.
• During the lightload, the acceleration of the flywheel is
increased and it stores the kinetic energy and at the time of
peak load, the flywheel slows down and the stored kinetic
energy is given out to the load;
• so that, the demand of the load from the motor or supply is
reduced.
• It is necessary that the motor used for load equalization
should have drooping characteristics. 252
 Bearing
• Bearings are those parts of a machine which house supports
and restrain the rotating parts.
• The moving part of bearing is known as journal and
stationary part of supports the moving part is known as
bearing.
• The main function of bearing, besides supporting the
rotating parts, are
1) To permit free rotation of moving component with
minimum friction
254
 Bearing
2) To maintain rotating member of machine in fixed physical
location relative to stationary member.

• The bearing are of two types namely

a) Ball or roller bearings.
b) Sleeve or brush bearing.

255
 Bearing
a) Ball or roller bearings :
• In this type of bearings shafts are supported by balls or
rollers which themselves are movable.
• Inner surface being fixed to shaft while outer surface is
fixed to housing supporting bearing.
• Such bearing are supplied and filled with grease.
• The period between renewal of grease depends upon speed
of rotation of motor.
• These are also called as antifriction bearings.
256
 Bearing
• Upto 75 kW use of ball bearing is made.
• Initial cost of bearing is high but their life is longer, occupy
less space, friction loss is smaller and maintenance cost is
smaller.

257
 Bearing
b) Sleeve or Bush bearings :
• In this bearing rotating shaft is supported by a bearing
component rigidly fixed to frame of machine.
• They may be,
i) Journal bearing offering support to shafts at right angles to
shaft axes.
ii) Foot step bearings supporting shafts parallel to shaft axes
iii) Thrust or collar bearings offering support to shafts
subjected end.
259
 Bearing
• Sleeve bearing are normally of bronze but universal and fan
cooled motor sintered powder or porous metal bearings may
be used because of their self lubricating properties.
• Sleeve bearing on small motors are lubricated with an oil
wick pressed lightly against the shaft by spring.
• Large sleeve bearings are ring lubricated which consists of
ring freely rotating on shaft carrying oil to bearings.
• This bearings are necessary to reduce noise level for
couplings and for positions subjected to external vibrations.
260
 Elevators
• Types of Elevators
a) According to service
1) Passenger : 2) Service 3) Freight : 4) Dumbwaiter

b) According to Speed
1) Low speed 2) Medium speed 3) High speed

c) According to Capacity
1) Light duty 2) Medium duty 3) Heavy duty
4) Extra heavy duty
261
 Elevators
• Types of Elevators
d) According to power unit
1) Drum : 2) Traction :

e) According to Location of power unit

1) Over mounted 2) Under mounted

f) According to Electric current

1) AC 2) DC

262
 Elevators
• Types of Elevators
g) According to motion drive
1) Gearless drive : 2) Geared drive :

h) According to method of operating elevator

1) Manual 2) Push button 3) Signal 4) Dual

i) According to Electric current

1) AC 2) DC

263
 Factors for selection of Elevator
1) Quantity of Elevators for proper service :
• Minimum waiting period
• Loading and unloading time
• Speed of elevators
• Number of elevators in system
• Capacity of each car

264
 Factors for selection of Elevator
2) Quality of Elevators :
• Confortable acceleration and smooth deacceleration to
avoid jerks.
• Adequate lighting and provision of fan.
• Interior design of car.
• Visual floor indication.

3) Economics
265
 Shape and size of Car
• Car is part of elevator which carries passengers or goods.
• For planning the elevator installation priority should be
given to size and shape of Elevator car.
• It mainly depends upon two factors
1) no. of passengers to be carried
2) limitation in building design.
• For selecting size of car allow space of 2 sq.ft per person
• In this case average weight of passenger is assumed to be
150 lbs (68 kg) 266
 Shape and size of Car
• While designing shape of elevator car it is designed to have
wide front and shallow depth.

267
 Speed of Elevator
• Speed of elevator car is measured in terms of no. of feet
travel by elevator car in one minute.
• Speed at which an elevator works depend on size and height
of building.
• Speed of elevator also depends on type of application.

268
 Speed
Sr. for car
Type of installation
No. (feet /
minute)
1. Residential Building 100 - 150

2. Hotels and apartment house 100 – 200

(a) Up to 5 floor
(b) 6 to 10 floor 200 - 350
3. Commercial building 100 – 200
(a) Up to 5 floor
(b) 6 to 10 floor 200 - 300
4. Office building 250 – 450
(a) Up to 10 floor
(b) 10 floor and above 400 - 800
269
 Location of Elevator
• The place where elevator machine is installed is called as
Pent house.
• Most of times pent house is located at top of building.
• But in some exceptional cases machine installed in
basement.
• Basement installation of pent house is objectionable due to
following reasons
a) Basement installation requires much longer hoisting cables.
270
 Location of Elevator
b) Also it require idler sheaves than over head machine.
c) Due to basement installation, valuable space of basement
occupied.

271
 Types of Elevator Machine
• There various methods of classifying elevator machines but
according to the transmitting the power to car rope elevator
machines are classified into two types
a) Drum type
b) Traction type

• The assembly of motor, drum, pulley brake and motor drum

drive combine is known as Elevator.
272
 A) Drum Elevator Machine
• It is consists of a drum which is in the form of spool.
• On drum, the ends of ropes are attached: when drum rotates
along with motor, rope wound or unwound around drum
depending upon direction of motor.
• Counter weight is provided to balance weight of car.
• With respect to location there are two types of machines
a) Over mounted machine
b) Under mounted machine
273
 1) Over mounted Machine
• It provides direct power transmission i.e. no pulleys are
required between drum and car.
• Location of drum in such way that one face over centre of
car and other face over counter balance.
• This facilitates car ropes to be fastened at one end of drum
and counter balance ropes at other end of drum grooves.

275
 2) Under mounted Machine
• Over head type drum machine gives reasonably longer rope
life.
• And under mounted machines longer rope as compared to
over mounted rope.
• Under mounted machines reverse bends are necessary in
ropes and this materially reduce rope life.

276
 B) Traction Elevator
• In this case motion is transferred by means of traction
through friction existing between driving pulley and
hoisting ropes.
• Ropes are not wound on drum.
• A continuous rope from car to counter weight passes over
driving pulley.

278
 Safety precautions
1. Don’t open door when you trapped in elevator. Push alarm
button and be patient till trained rescue team comes.
2. Don’t attempt to climb out of elevator stuck and don’t
attempt to come out of elevator stuck between floors.
3. Turn off elevator main switch before commencing rescue.
4. Give top priority to safety and quality.
5. Stay calm and don’t panic.
6. Communicate to outside world
7. Be patient. 280
 Bombay Lift Act
1. Manufacturing, erection and maintenance of lift shall be
done as per provision laid down in Bombay lift rules 1958
framed at Bombay lift act 1939.69

281
The advantages of the electric braking over the mechanical
braking :
1) The electric braking is smooth, fast, and reliable.
2) Higher speeds can be maintained; this is because the electric
braking is quite fast. This leads to the higher capacity of the
system.
3) The electric braking is more economical; this is due to
excessive wear on brake blocks brake lining that results
frequent and costly replacement in mechanical braking.

282
4) Heat produced in the electric braking is less and not harmful
but heat produced in the mechanical braking will cause the
failure of brakes.
5) In the electric braking, sometimes, it is possible to fed back
electric energy during braking period to the supply system.
This results in saving in the operating cost. This is not possible
in case of mechanical braking.

283
The disadvantages of the electric braking :
• During the braking period, the traction motor acts generator and
electric brakes can almost stop the motor but it cannot hold
stationary. Hence, it is necessary to employ mechanical braking
in addition to electric braking.
• Traction motor has to work as a generator during braking period.
So that, motor has to select in such a way that it should have
suitable braking characteristics.
• The initial cost of the electric braking equipment is costlier.

284
 Unit 4
Electric Traction

285
 Introduction
• The system that causes the propulsion of a vehicle in which
that driving force is obtained from various devices such as
electric motors, steam engine drives, diesel engine drives,
etc. is known as traction system.
• Traction system may be broadly classified into two types.
• They are electric traction systems, which use electrical
energy, and non-electric traction system, which does not use
electrical energy for the propulsion of vehicle.

286
 Requirements of Ideal traction system
• Ideal traction system should have the capability of
developing high tractive effort in order to have rapid
acceleration.
• The speed control of the traction motors should be easy.
• Vehicles should be able to run on any route, without
interruption.
• Equipment required for traction system should be minimum
with high efficiency.
• It must be free from smoke, ash, durt, etc.
287
 Requirements of Ideal traction system
• Regenerative braking should be possible and braking should
be in such a way to cause minimum wear on the break shoe.
• Locomotive should be self-contained and it must be capable
of withstanding overloads.
• Interference to the communication lines should be
eliminated while the locomotive running along the track.

288
 System of traction
• Traction system is normally classified into two types based
on the type of energy given as input to drive the system and
they are:
• Non-electric traction system
• Traction system develops the necessary propelling torque,
which do not involve the use of electrical energy at any
stage to drive the traction vehicle known as electric traction
system. Ex: Direct steam engine drive and direct internal
combustion engine drive.
289
 System of traction
• Electric traction system
• Traction system develops the necessary propelling torque,
which involves the use of electrical energy at any stage to
drive the traction vehicle, known as electric traction system.
Ex: Steam electric drive and internal combustion engine
Electric drive, Electric drive

290
• Non-electric traction system
a) Direct steam engine drive
b) Direct internal combustion engine drive.

• Electric traction system

a) Steam electric drive
b) Internal combustion Engine Electric drive
c) Electric drive
291
 System of Track Electrification
• Now a days, based on the available supply, the track
electrification system are categorized into.
a) DC system.
b) Single-phase AC system.
c) Three-phase AC system.
d) Composite system.

292
 a) DC system
• In this system of traction, the electric motors employed for
getting necessary motive power should be selected in such a way
that they should be able to operate on DC supply.
• Examples for such vehicles operation based on DC system are
tramways and trolley buses. Usually, DC series motors are
preferred for tramways and trolley buses even though DC
compound motors are available where regenerative braking is
desired.
• The operating voltages of vehicles for DC track electrification
system are 600, 750, 1,500, and 3,000 V.
293
 a) DC system
• DC supply for traction motor can be obtained from substations
equipped with rotary converters to convert AC power to DC.
• These substations receive AC power from 3-φ high voltage line
or single-phase overhead distribution network.

294
 b) Single Phase AC system
• In this system of track electrification, usually AC series motors
are used for getting the necessary motive power.
• The distribution network employed for such traction systems is
normally 15–25 kV at reduced frequency of 25 Hz.
• The main reason of operating at reduced frequencies is AC series
motors that are more efficient and show better performance at
low frequency.
• These high voltages are stepped down to suitable low voltage of
300–400 V by means of step-down transformer..
297
 b) Single Phase AC system
• Low frequency can be obtained from normal supply frequency
with the help of frequency converter.
• Low-frequency operation of overhead transmission line reduces
the line reactance and hence the voltage drops directly and
single-phase AC system is mainly preferred for main line
services where the
• cost of overhead structure is not much importance moreover
rapid acceleration and retardation is not required for suburban
services.
298
 c) Three Phase AC system
• In this system of track electrification, 3-φ induction motors are
employed for getting the necessary motive power.
• The operating voltage of induction motors is normally 3,000–
3,600-V AC at either normal supply frequency or 50 Hz
frequency.
• Usually 3-φ induction motors are preferable because they have
simple and robust construction, high operating efficiency,
provision of regenerative braking without placing any additional
equipment, and better performance at both normal and seduced
frequencies.
299
 c) Three Phase AC system
• In addition to the above advantages, the induction motors suffer
from some drawbacks; they are low-starting torque, high-starting
current, and the absence of speed control.
• The main disadvantage of such track electrification system is
high cost of overhead distribution structure.
• This distribution system consists of two overhead wires and
track rail for the third phase and receives power either directly
from the generating station or through transformer substation.
• Three-phase AC system is mainly adopted for the services where
the output power required is high and regeneration of electrical
300
 d) Composite system
• Composite systems are of two types.
1. Single-phase to DC system.
2. Single-phase to three-phase system or kando system.

301
 1) Single-phase to DC system
• In this system, the advantages of both 1-φ and DC systems are
combined to get high voltage for distribution in order to reduce
the losses that can be achieved with 1-φ distribution networks,
and DC series motor is employed for producing the necessary
motive.
• Finally, 1-φ AC distribution network results minimum cost with
high transmission efficiency and DC series motor is ideally
suited for traction purpose.
• Normal operating voltage employed of distribution is 25 kV at
normal frequency of 50 Hz. This track electrification is
302
employed in India.
 2) Single-phase to Three phase system or kando system
• In this system, 1-φ AC system is preferred for distribution
network. Since single phase overhead distribution system is
cheap and 3-φ induction motors are employed as traction motor
because of their simple, robust construction, and the provision of
automatic regenerative braking.
• The voltage used for the distribution network is about 15–25 kV
at 50 Hz.
• This 1-φ supply is converted to 3-φ supply through the help of
the phase converters and high voltage is stepped down
transformers to feed the 3-φ induction
303
 2) Single-phase to Three phase system or kando system
• Frequency converters are also employed to get high-starting
torque and to achieve better speed control with the variable
supply frequency.

304
 Block diagram of A.C Electric Locomotive
• It collects current from overhead equipment (OHE) by means of
a pantagraph collector.
• It carries a sliding shoes for contact with trolley wire.
• It consists air circuit breaker, on load tap changer, step down
transformer, converting machinery, smoothing chokes and dc
traction motors.

305
Block diagram of A.C Electric Locomotive

306
• OHE:
Supply of 1-ph, 25KV, 50Hz, AC is given to overhead conductor.
Electric locomotive col lects current from over head equipment OHE.
• Current collecting device:
It collects current from OHE through circuit breaker.
• Circuit breaker:
It is connected inbetween current collecting devices and tap changing
transformer. SF6 circuit breaker i s used To di s connect locomotive from
OHE, whenever there is fault.

307
• On load tap changing transformer:
It changes the tap without disconnecting the load on
transformer. Its purpose is to vary the voltage for speed control
of traction motor.
• Traction Transformer:
It step down input 25 KV voltage to working voltage of
traction motor (1500V/3000V).
• Rectifier:
It converts secondary voltage of transformer into DC supply
• Filter circuit:
• It i s used to obtain pure DC supply. 308
 Traction transformer :
• Transformer is required to step down grid supply voltage from
220 or 132 kV to 25 kV.
• These are specially designed to withstand severe operating
conditions.
• Its winding are designed with class A insulation.
• Off load tappings are provided on hv side at -10%, -5%, 0% and
10% of rated voltage so as to provide voltage between 27,500
and 23750 v.
• These transformer are with conservator tank, Buchholz relay,
breather, oil level indicator
309
 Traction motors
 D C Series motor
• DC series motor is having high-starting torque and having
the capability of handling overloads that is essential for
traction drives.
• The speed control of the series motor is easy by series
parallel control.
• Series motor flux is proportional to armature current and
torque. But armature current is independent of voltage
fluctuations. Hence, the motor is unaffected by the
variations in supply voltage. 310
 Desirable characteristics of Traction motors
 D C Shunt motor
• DC shunt motor is a constant speed motor but for traction
purpose, the speed of the motor should vary with service
conditions.
• In case of DC shunt motor, the power output is independent
of speed and is proportional to torque.
• So that, for a given load torque, the shunt motor has to draw
more power from the supply than series motor.

311
 Desirable characteristics of Traction motors
 D C Shunt motor
• For shunt motor, the torque developed is proportional to
armature current. So for a given load torque motor has to
draw more current from the supply.
• The flux developed by shunt motor is proportional to shunt
field current and hence supply voltage But the torque
developed is proportional to φsh and Ia. Hence, the torque
developed by the shunt motor is affected by small variations
in supply voltage
312
 Desirable characteristics of Traction motors
 A C Series motor
• Practically, AC series motor is best suited for the traction
purpose due to high starting torque.
• Weight of an AC series motor is one and a half to two times that
of a DC series motor.
• And operating voltage is limited to 300 V.
• They can be built up to the size of several hundred kW for
traction work. At the time of starting operation, the power factor
is low; so that, for a given current, the torque developed by the
AC motor is less compared to the DC motor.
313
 Desirable characteristics of Traction motors
 A C Series motor
• Thus, the AC series motor is not suitable for suburban
services with frequent stops and preferred for main line
service where high acceleration is not required.

314
 Desirable characteristics of Traction motors
 Three phase induction motor
• The speed controller of induction motor becomes smooth
and easy with the use of thyristorized inverter circuits to get
variable frequency supply that can be used to control the
speed of three-phase induction motor.
• Nowadays, by overcoming the drawbacks of three-phase
induction motor, it can be used for traction purpose.

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 Desirable characteristics of Traction motors
• High-starting torque :
A traction motor must have high-starting torque, which
is required to start the motor on load during the starting
conditions in urban and suburban services.
• Speed control :
The speed control of the traction motor must be simple
and easy. This is necessary for the frequent starting and
stopping of the motor in traction purpose.

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 Desirable characteristics of Traction motors
• Dynamic and regenerative braking :
Traction motors should be able to provide easy simple
rheostatic and regenerative braking subjected to higher
voltages so that system must have the capability of
withstanding voltage fluctuations.
• Overload capacity
The traction motor should have the capability of
handling excessive overloads.

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 Desirable characteristics of Traction motors
• Parallel running
In traction work, more number of motors need to run in
parallel to carry more load. Therefore, the traction motor
should have such speed–torque and current–torque
characteristics and those motors may share the total load
almost equally
• Temperature
The traction motor should have the capability of
withstanding high temperatures during transient conditions.
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 Desirable characteristics of Traction motors
• Robustness
A traction motor must be mechanically strong and
robust and it should be capable of withstanding severe
mechanical vibrations.
• High efficiency
Motor should have high mechanical and electrical
efficiency.

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 Some definition
 Crest Speed
• The maximum speed attained by the train during run is known as
crest speed. It is denoted with ‘Vm’.
 Average Speed
• It is the mean of the speeds attained by the train from start to
stop, i.e., it is defined as the ratio of the distance covered by the
train between two stops to the total time of run. It is denoted
with ‘Va’.

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 Some definition

• where Va is the average speed of train in kmph, D is the

distance between stops in km, and T is the actual time of run
in hours.
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 Some definition
 Schedule Speed
• The ratio of the distance covered between two stops to the
total time of the run including the time for stop is known as
schedule speed. It is denoted with the symbol ‘Vs’.

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 Factors affecting Schedule speed
1) Crest speed :
• It is the maximum speed of train, which affects the schedule
speed as for fixed acceleration, retardation, and constant distance
between the stops.
• If the crest speed increases, the actual running time of train
decreases.
• For the low crest speed of train it running so, the high crest
speed of train will increases its schedule speed.

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 Factors affecting Schedule speed
2) Duration of stop :
• If the duration of stops is more, then the running time of train
will be less; so that, this leads to the low schedule speed.
• Thus, for high schedule speed, its duration of stops must be low.

3) Distance between stops :

• If the distance between the stops is more, then the running time
of the train is less; hence, the schedule speed of train will be
more
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 Factors affecting Schedule speed
4) Acceleration :
• If the acceleration of train increases, then the running time of the
train decreases provided the distance between stops and crest
speed is maintained as constant.
• Thus, the increase in acceleration will increase the schedule
speed.
3) Braking retardation :
• High breaking retardation leads to the reduction of running time
of train. These will cause high schedule speed provided the
distance between the stops is small.
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 Speed time curve for traction
• The curve that shows the instantaneous speed of train in kmph
along the ordinate and time in seconds along the abscissa is
known as ‘speed–time’ curve.
• Typical speed–time curve of a train running on main line service
is shown. It mainly consists of the following time periods:
1) Constant accelerating period.
2) Acceleration on speed curve.
3) Free-running period.
4) Coasting period.
5) Braking period. 326
327
• During this period, the traction motor accelerate from rest. The curve ‘OA’
represents the constant accelerating period.
• During the instant 0 to T1, the current is maintained approximately constant
and the voltage across the motor is gradually increased by cutting out the
starting resistance slowly moving from one notch to the other. Thus, current
taken by the motor and the tractive efforts are practically constant and
therefore acceleration remains constant during this period. Hence, this
period is also called as notch up accelerating period or rehostatic
accelerating period.
• Typical value of acceleration lies between 0.5 and 1 kmph.
• Acceleration is denoted with the symbol ‘α’.

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