Chapter 1 | Fluids

Characteristics
1.2 Viscosity in Fluid Flows

Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. It determines the fluid strain rate that is
generated by a given applied shear stress.

1.2.1 Dynamic Viscosity (Absolute Viscosity)

Absolute viscosity or the coefficient of absolute viscosity is a measure of the internal resistance.
Dynamic (absolute) viscosity is the tangential force per unit area required to move one horizontal
plane with respect to the other at unit velocity when maintained a unit distance apart by the fluid.

The dynamic or absolute viscosity can be expressed like:

𝒅
𝝉 𝒄
= 𝝁
𝒅
Where: 𝒚stress (Ns/m2)
τ = Shearing
 = Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)

1.2.2 Kinematic Viscosity

Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity and density of

liquid.
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐
�
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝝑 =
�
�

Where:  = Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2)

�
 = Density of liquid (kg/m3)

1.2.3 Type of Fluids

The fluid may be classified into the following five types:

a. Ideal fluid
b. Real fluid
c. Newtonian fluids
d. Non-Newtonian fluids
e. Idea plastic fluid

Figure 1.1: Types of fluids

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 Chapter 1 | Fluids
Characteristics

Ideal Fluid This fluid is incompressible and possesses no viscosity. Such a fluid
is only an imaginary fluid. All existing fluids have some viscosity.

Real Fluid A fluid that possesses viscosity is known as a real fluid. In actual
practice, all fluids are real fluids.

Newtonian Fluid A real fluid in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the
rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient) is called Newtonian fluid.

Non-Newtonian
Fluids A real fluid in which the shear stress is not proportional to the rate
of shear strain (or velocity gradient) is called non-newtonian fluid.

A real fluid in which shear stress is more than the yield value and the
Ideal Plastic Fluid shear stress is propertional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity
gradient) is called ideal plastic fluid.

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 MEASUREMENT OF
PRESSURE
2.1 Pressure

Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. Units of pressure are N/m2,
which is called a Pascal (Pa). It is denoted by P and is given by:

,ࡼ=
۴
‫ݑ‬
‫ۯ‬

Where: F = Force (N)

A = Area (m2)

2.1.1 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest

Pressure at any point in a fluid is directly proportional to the density if the fluid and of the depth
in the fluid.

Consider a cubic containing some fluid as shown in figure 2.1. We know that the liquid will exert
pressure on all sides as well as bottom of the vessel. The pressure from the weight of a column of
liquid of area A and height h is:

ܹ݁݅݃ ℎ‫ݑݑ ݐ‬‫݂݋‬ ‫ݍ‬

,ܲ =
‫ݑݑݑ‬
‫ܣ ܽ݁ݎ‬
‫ݑ‬
ܹ
=
‫ܣ‬
݉݃  ܸ݃
= =
‫ܣ‬ ‫ܣ‬
݃ ‫ܣ‬ℎ
= =ࢎ ࢍ
‫ܣ‬
ࡼ= ࢎࢍ
Figure 2.1: Fluid Pressure

Where:  = Density of fluid (kg/m3)

g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
h = Height or depth of fluid (m)

EXAMPLE 2.1
Find the pressure at a point 4 m below the free surface of water.

Solution
Given; h = 4 m

Pressure:

ܲ = ߩ ‫ ݔ݃ ݔ‬ℎ
= 1000‫ ݔ‬9.81‫ ݔ‬4
= ૜ૢ ૛ ૝ ૙ ࡺ/ ࢓૛

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 Chapter 2 | Measurement of
Pressure

EXAMPLE 2.2
The gauge pressure in water mains is 50 kN/m2, what is the pressure head?

Solution
Given; P = 50 kN/m2 - 50 x 103 N/m2

𝑃=𝜌𝑥
Pressure head:
𝑔𝑥ℎ
ℎ 𝑃
𝜌𝑔
=
50 𝑥
= 103
(1000 𝑥
= 9.81)
𝟓.
𝟎𝟗𝟕 𝒎
EXAMPLE 2.3
A steel plate is immersed in an oil of specific weight 7.5 kN/m3 up to a depth of 2.5 m. What is the
intensity of pressure on the plate due to the oil?

Solution
Given;  = 7.5 kN/m3 - 7.5 x 103 N/m3, h = 2.5 m

Pressure:

𝑃=𝜔𝑥ℎ
= (7.5 𝑥 103) 𝑥 2.5
= 𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
EXAMPLE 2.4
Calculate the pressure due to a column of 0.3 m of:
i. Water
ii. Oil of sp. gr. 0.8
iii. Mercury of sp. gr. 13.6

Solution
Given; h = 0.3 m

i. For water; ρw = 1000 kg/m3

𝑃 = 𝜌 𝑤 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑤
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.3
= 𝟐𝟗𝟒𝟑 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
ii.
For oil; so = 0.8

𝜌 𝑜 = 𝑠𝑜 𝑥 𝜌 𝑤
= 0.8 𝑥 1000 = 800
𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑃 = 𝜌 𝑜 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑜
= 800 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.3
= 𝟐𝟑𝟓𝟒. 𝟒 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
iii.
For mercury; sm = 13.6

𝜌 𝑚 = 𝑠𝑚 𝑥 𝜌 𝑤
= 13.6 𝑥 1000 = 13600
𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

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 Chapter 2 | Measurement of
Pressure

𝑃 = 𝜌 𝑚 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑚
= 13600 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.3
= 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟒. 𝟖 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
EXAMPLE 2.5
An open tank contains water up to a depth of 2 m and above it an oil of specific gravity 0.9 for a
depth of 1 m. Find the pressure intensity:
i. At the interface of the two liquid
ii. At the bottom of the tank.

Solution

Given; hw = 2 m, ho = 1 m, s = 0.9

i. At the interface of the two liquids:

𝜌𝑜 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.9 𝑥 1000 = 900 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑃 = 𝜌 𝑜 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑜
= 900 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1.0
= 𝟖𝟖𝟐𝟗 𝑵/𝒎𝟐

ii. At the bottom of the tank:

𝑃 = (𝜌 𝑜 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ 𝑜 ) + (𝜌 𝑤 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ 𝑤 )
= 8829 + (1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 2.0)
= 𝟐𝟖𝟒𝟒𝟗 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
2.2 Absolute Pressure (Pabs), Gauge Pressure (Pg), and Atmospheric Pressure (Patm)

The pressure on a fluid is measured in two different systems. In one system, if pressure is
measured above absolute zero (vacuum), it is called absolute pressure and other system, if
pressure is measured above atmospheric pressure, it is called positive gauge pressure. If
pressure is measured below atmospheric pressure, it is called negative gauge pressure.

Figure 2.2: Relationship between absolute pressure,

gauge pressure, and atmospheric pressure

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 Chapter 2 | Measurement of
Pressure

The relationship between the absolute pressure, gauge pressure and vacuum pressure are shown:

i. Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure

𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 + 𝑷𝒈

ii. Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure  Vacuum pressure

𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 − 𝑷𝒗𝒂𝒄

Atmospheric Pressure, Absolute Gauge
( Patm ) Pressure, ( Pabs ) Pressure, ( Pg )
• It is also called as • It is pressure • This
barometric pressure which is pressure,
because atmospheric measured with atmospheric
pressure is measured by reference to pressure is
a barometer. The absolute consider zero,
atmospheric pressure at independent of and this
sea level is called the change in pressure is
standard atmospheric atmospheric above
pressure. Standard pressure. It is atmospheric
atmospheric pressure measured above pressure it's
101.3 kN/m2 = 10.3 m of the absolute zero measured by
water = 760 mm of Hg. of pressure. pressure
gauge.

EXAMPLE 2.6
What are the gauge pressure and absolute pressure at a point 3 m below the free surface of a
liquid having a density of 1.53 x 103 kg/m3 if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 750 mm of
mercury? The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6 and density of water = 1000 kg/m3.

Solution
Given; h = 3 m, ρ = 1.53 x 103 kg/m3, hm = 750 mm - 0.75 m, sm = 13.6, ρw = 1000 kg/m3

Density:

𝜌 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 13.6 𝑥 1000 = 13600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Gauge pressure:

𝑃𝑔 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ
= (1.53 𝑥 103) 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 3
= 𝟒𝟓𝟎𝟐𝟕. 𝟗 𝑵/𝒎𝟐

Absolute pressure:

𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑚
= 13600 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.75
= 100062 𝑁/𝑚2

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑔
= 100062 + 45027.9
= 𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟎𝟖𝟗. 𝟗 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
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 Chapter 2 | Measurement of
Pressure

EXAMPLE 2.7
Determine the gauge and absolute pressure at a point which 12 m below the free surface of water.
Take atmospheric pressure as 101.3 kN/m3.

Solution
Given; h = 12 m, Patm = 101.3 kN/m2 - 101.3 x 103 N/m2

Gauge pressure:

𝑃𝑔 = 𝜌 𝑤 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ 𝑤
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 12
= 117720 𝑁/𝑚2

Absolute pressure:

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑔
= (101.3 𝑥 103) + 117720
= 𝟐𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟐𝟎 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
2.3 Measurement of Pressure

The pressure of fluid is measured by:

Barometer Piezometer U-tube manometer

2.3.1 Barometer

A barometer is a device used for measuring atmospheric or barometer pressure. A simple

barometer consists of an inverted glass tube filled with mercury with its open end submerged in a
mercury container.

𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ +
𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉

Figure 2.3: Barometer

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 Chapter 2 | Measurement of
Pressure
2.3.2 Piezometer

Piezometer tube is the simplest of the pressure measuring devices and consists of a vertical tube.
In its application one end is connected to the pressure to be measured while the other end is open
to the atmosphere as shown figure 2.4. Fluid pressure at A is PA given by:

𝑷𝑨 = 𝝆 𝒙
𝒈𝒙𝒉

Figure 2.4: Piezometer

2.3.3 U-tube Manometer

It consists of a U–shaped bend whose one end is attached to the gauge point ‘A’ and other end is
open to the atmosphere. It can measure both positive and negative pressures.
Choosing the line CD as the interface between the
measuring liquid and the fluid, we know:

Pressure in the left limb below CD

𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1

Pressure in the right limb below CD

𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌2𝑔ℎ2

Equating the two pressure:

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐶, 𝑃𝐶 =
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐷, 𝑃𝐷 Figure 2.5: U-tube
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + manometer
𝜌2𝑔ℎ2
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1 = 0 + 𝜌2𝑔ℎ2
𝑷𝑨 = 𝝆𝟐𝒈𝒉𝟐 −
EXAMPLE 2.8
𝝆𝟏𝒈𝒉
The right limb of a simple 𝟏
U-tube manometer containing mercury is open to the atmosphere
while the left is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of sp. gr. 0.9 is flowing. The centre of the pipe
is 12 cm below the level of mercury in the right limb. Find the pressure of fluid in the pipe if the
difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 20 cm.

Solution
Given; s = 0.9, h1 = 20  12 = 8 cm = 0.08 m, h2 = 20 cm = 0.2 m

Density:

𝜌𝑜 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.9 𝑥 1000 = 900 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

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 Chapter 2 | Measurement of
Pressure
The pressure of fluid in the pipe:
𝑷𝑪 = 𝑷𝑫
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌2𝑔ℎ2
𝑃𝐴 + (900 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.08) = 0 + (13600 𝑥
9.81 𝑥 0.2)
𝑃𝐴 + 706.32 = 26683.2
𝑃𝐴 = 26683.2  706.32
= 𝟐𝟓𝟗𝟕𝟔. 𝟖𝟖 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
EXAMPLE 2.9
A simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is connected to a pipe in which a fluid specific
gravity 0.8 and having vacuum pressure is flowing. The other end of the manometer is open to
atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in pipe, if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs
is 40 cm and the height of fluid in the left from the centre of pipe is 15 cm below.

Solution
Given; s = 0.8, h1 = 15 cm - 0.15 m, h2 = 40 cm - 0.4 m

Density:

𝜌 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.8 𝑥 1000 = 800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

The pressure of fluid in the pipe:

𝑷𝑪 = 𝑷𝑫
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌2𝑔ℎ2 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑃𝐴 + (800 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.15) + (13600 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.4)
=0
𝑃𝐴 + 1177.2 + 53366.4 = 0
𝑃𝐴 + 54543.6 = 0
=
2.4 Differential Manometer −𝟓
𝟒𝟓
𝟒𝟑
Differential manometers are used to measure the pressure difference between two points in a
.𝟔
pipe or in two different containers. There are two types of differential manometers:
𝑵/
𝒎𝟐

U-tube differential Inverted U-tube differential

manometer manometer

2.4.1 U-Tube Differential Manometer

It consists of a u-tube, containing a heavy liquid. The two ends are connected to two different
points whose pressure difference is to be measured. Figure 2.6 shows a U-tube differential

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 Chapter 2 | Measurement of
Pressure

manometer connected to the two points A and B. Consider the differential manometer shown in
figure 2.6 whose measuring points A and B are at different levels.

Choosing the line CD as the interface between the

measuring liquid and the fluid, we know:

Pressure in the left limb below CD

𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1

Pressure in the right limb below CD

𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌2𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌3𝑔ℎ3

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
Equating 𝑎𝑡 𝐶, 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐷,
the two pressure:
𝑃𝐷 Figure 2.6: U-tube differential
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌2𝑔ℎ2 + manometer
𝜌3𝑔ℎ3
𝑷𝑨 − 𝑷𝑩 = 𝝆𝟐𝒈𝒉𝟐 + 𝝆𝟑𝒈𝒉𝟑
− 𝝆𝟏𝒈𝒉𝟏 EXAMPLE 2.10
A differential manometer, when connected to two pipes A and B, gives the readings as shown in
figure. Determine the pressure (kN/m2) in the tube A, if the pressure in the pipe B be 55 kN/m2.

Solution
Given; PB = 55 kN/m2 - 55 x 103 N/m2

Density:

𝜌1 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.85 𝑥 1000 = 850 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝜌2 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.90 𝑥 1000 = 900 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝜌3 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 13.6 𝑥 1000 = 13600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

The pressure (kN/m2) in the tube A:

𝑷𝑪 = 𝑷𝑫
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌2𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌3𝑔ℎ3
𝑃𝐴 + (850 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 6.5) = (55 𝑥 103) + (900 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1.25) +
(13600 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.5)
𝑃𝐴 + 54200.25 = (55 𝑥 103) + 11036.25 + 66708
𝑃𝐴 = 132744.25 − 54200.25
= 𝟕𝟖𝟓𝟒𝟒 𝑵/𝒎𝟐 ≈ 𝟕𝟖. 𝟓𝟒𝟒 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐
EXAMPLE 2.11
A differential manometer is connected at two points A and B of two pipes as shown in figure. The
pipe A contains a liquid of specific gravity is 1.5 while pipe B contains a liquid of specific gravity is
0.9. The pressure at A and B are 98.1 kN/m2 and 176.58 kN/m2 respectively. Find the difference
in mercury level in the differential manometer.
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 Chapter 2 | Measurement of
Pressure

Solution
Given; s1 = 1.5, s2 = 0.9, PA = 98.1 kN/m2 - 98.1 x 103 N/m2, PB = 176.58 kN/m2 - 176.58 x 103 N/m3

Density:

𝜌1 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 1.5 𝑥 1000 = 1500 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝜌2 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 13.6 𝑥 1000 = 13600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝜌3 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.90 𝑥 1000 = 900 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

The difference in mercury level in the differential manometer:

𝑷𝑪 = 𝑷𝑫
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌2𝑔ℎ2 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝜌3𝑔ℎ3
𝑃𝐴 + (1500 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 5) + (13600 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 (ℎ)) = 𝑃𝐵 + (900 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 (2 +
ℎ )) 2256
ℎ 3
(98.1 𝑥 103) + 73575 + = 12458
133416ℎ = (176.58 𝑥 103) +
= 7𝟎.
17658 + 8829ℎ 133416ℎ − 8829ℎ = 194238 − 171675
𝟏𝟖𝟏 𝒎
124587ℎ = 22563
2.4.2 Inverted U-Tube Differential Manometer

It consists of an inverter U-tube, containing a light liquid. The two ends of the tube are connected
to the points whose difference of pressure is to be measured. It is used for measuring difference
of low pressures. Figure 2.7 shows an inverted U-tube differential manometer connected to the
two points A and B.

Consider the inverter U-tube differential manometer shown in figure 2.7 whose measuring points
A and B are at different levels.

Choosing the line CD as the interface between

the measuring liquid and the fluid, we know:

Pressure in the left limb below CD

𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝐴 − 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1

Pressure in the right limb below CD

𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝐵 − 𝜌2𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌3𝑔ℎ3

Equating the two pressure:

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐶, 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐷,
𝑃𝐷
𝑃𝐴 − 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃𝐵 − 𝜌2𝑔ℎ2 −
Figure 2.7: Inverted U-tube

𝜌3𝑔ℎ3
differential manometer

𝑷𝑨 − 𝑷𝑩 = 𝝆𝟏𝒈𝒉𝟏 − 𝝆𝟐𝒈𝒉𝟐
− 𝝆𝟑𝒈𝒉𝟑

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 Chapter 2 | Measurement of
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EXAMPLE 2.12
In below figure shows an inverted differential manometer connected to two pipes A and B
containing water. Find the differential of pressure between pipes A and B.

Solution

Density:

𝜌𝑜 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.8 𝑥 1000 = 800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

The differential of pressure between

pipes A and B:

𝑷𝑪 =
𝑷𝑫
𝑃𝐴 − 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1
= 𝑃𝐵 − 𝜌2𝑔ℎ2 −
𝜌3𝑔ℎ3
𝑃𝐴 − (1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 2) =
𝑃𝐵 − (1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1) −
(800 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.5)
𝑃𝐴 − 19620 = 𝑃𝐵 − 9810 − 3924
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = −13734 + 19620
= 𝟓𝟖𝟖𝟔 𝑵/𝒎𝟐

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 HYDRODYNAMICS
3.1 Types of Fluid Flows

The types of fluids flow are classified as:

a. Steady Flow and Unsteady Flow
• Steady flow is defined as that type of flow in which fluid
characteristics like velocity, pressure, density, etc. at a point in space do not
change with time. Unsteady flow is that in which the above flow characteristics
at a point in space change with respect to time.

b. Uniform and non-uniform flows

• When certain fluid characteristics, like velocity, density and pressure
do not change with respect to space at a given time, the flow is uniform flow.
If the above flow characteristics or parameters change with space at a given
time, the flow is non-uniform flow.

c. Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow and Transition Flow

• When fluid particles move along well-defined paths or streamlines and
the paths are parallel and straight, the is laminar. Thus particles move in
laminar or layer gliding smoothly over the adjacent layer. Laminar flow
generally happens when dealing with small pipes and low flow velocities. If
particles with higher velocity move in a zig-zag manner and eddies are formed,
the flow is called turbulent. Turbulent flow happens in general at high flow
rates and with larger pipes. Turbulent flows are unsteady flows. Transitional
flow occurs in a critical zone where the average velocity changes the flow form
laminar to turbulent.

3.2 Reynolds Number

Osborne Reynolds was the first to demonstrate that laminar or turbulent flow can be predicted is
the magnitude of a dimensionless number, now called the Reynolds number (Re), is known. The following
equation shows the basic definition of the Reynolds number:
𝝆𝒗 𝒗𝒅
𝑹𝒆 𝒅 𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝒆
� = 𝝑
= �
Where: ρ = Density (kg/m3)
μ = Dynamic viscosity (Ns/m²)
ϑ = Kinematic viscosity (m²/s)
v = Characteristic flow velocity (m/s)
d = Diameter of pipe (m)

The Reynolds Number can be used to determine if flow is laminar, transition or turbulent. This
flow is:

3-1
 Chapter 5 |
Hydrodynamics

Laminar flow Transitional flow Turbulent flow

• Re < 2000 • 2000 < Re < 4000 • Re > 4000

3.2.1 Characteristics Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow and Transition Flow

Laminar flow Transition flow Turbulent flow

• Re < 2000 • 2000 < Re < 4000 • Re > 4000

• ‘Low’ velocity • ‘Medium’ velocity • ‘High’ velocity
• Dye does not • Filament • Dye mixes
mix with water oscillates and rapidly and
• Fluid particles mixes slightly. completely
move in straight • Particle
lines paths
completely
irregular
EXAMPLE 3.1
An oil having kinematic viscosity of 21.4 x 10-4 m2/s is flowing through a pipe of 300 mm
diameter. Determine the type of flow, if the discharge through the pipe is 15 litres/s.

Solution
Given; ϑ = 21.4 x 10-4 m2/s, d = 300 mm - 0.3 m, Q = 15 litres/s - 15 x 10-3 m3/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴 = (0.3)2 =
4 𝑚2
0.071
Velocity:

𝑄 =𝐴𝑥𝑣
15 𝑥 10−3 =
0.071 𝑥 𝑣 15 𝑥
𝑣
100.07
−3
= = 0.211 𝑚/𝑠
1
Re
yn
ol
ds
N
u
m
be
r:
𝑣𝑑
3-2
𝑅
= 𝑒
𝜗
 Chapter 5 | Hydrodynamics

EXAMPLE 3.2
If Reynolds number for single stream in a pipe that having diameter 70 mm is 1950 and kinematic
viscosity 0.555 cm2/s, calculate velocity of oil in that pipe.

Solution
Given; ϑ = 0.555 cm2/s - 5.55 x 10-5 m2/s, d = 70 mm - 0.07 m, Re = 1950

Velocity:

𝑅𝑒 =𝑣𝑑
𝜗
𝑣 𝑥 0.07
1950 =
5.55 𝑥 10−5
= 1261.261𝑣
195
𝑣 0
1261.26
= = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟒𝟔
1
𝒎/𝒔 EXAMPLE 3.3
A Newtonian fluid with a dynamic viscosity of 0.38 Ns/m2 and a specific gravity of 0.91 flows
through a 25 mm diameter pipe with a velocity of 2.6 m/s. Determine the Reynolds number and
type of flow.

Solution
Given; μ = 0.38 Ns/m2, s = 0.91, d = 25 mm - 0.025 m, v = 2.6 m/s

Density:

𝜌 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.91 𝑥 1000 = 910 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Reynolds Number:
𝜌𝑣
𝑅𝑒 𝑑
= 𝜇
= (91
0.3
=0 𝑥 𝟔𝟓𝟖
𝟏𝟓𝟓. 8
2.6
(𝑳𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘)
𝑥
EXAMPLE 3.4

0.0
An oil of specific gravity of 0.95 is flowing through a pipeline of 200 mm diameter at the rate of
50 litres/s. Find 25
the)type of flow if viscosity for the oil is 0.1 Ns/m2.

Solution
Given; μ = 0.1 Ns/m2, s = 0.95, d = 200 mm - 0.2 m, Q = 50 litres/s - 50 x 10-3 m3/s,

Density:

𝜌 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.95 𝑥 1000 = 950 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝜋
Area:

𝐴 = (0.2)2 =
4 𝑚2
0.031

3-3
 Chapter 5 |
Hydrodynamics
Velocity:

𝑄 =𝐴𝑥𝑣
50 𝑥 10−3 =
0.031 𝑥 𝑣 50 𝑥
𝑣
100.03
−3
= = 1.613
1
𝑚/𝑠

𝜌𝑣
Reynolds Number:
𝑅𝑒 𝑑
= 𝜇
= (95
0.
= 0 𝑥
𝟑𝟎𝟔𝟒. 1𝟕
1.6
(𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘)
A 45 cm diameter13pipe discharge water at the rate of 0.025 m3/s. Find the type of flow, if the
EXAMPLE 3.5

𝑥 is 1.14 mm2/s.
0.2)
kinematic viscosity
Solution
Given; ϑ = 1.14 mm2/s = 1.14 x 10-6 m2/s, d = 45 cm - 0.45 m, Q = 0.025 m3/s,

Area:
𝜋
𝐴 = (0.45)2 =
4 𝑚2
0.159
Velocity:

𝑄 =𝐴𝑥𝑣
0.025 =
0.159 𝑥0.02
𝑣
𝑣 5
0.15
== 0.157
9
𝑚/𝑠

Reyno
lds

= (0.157
er: 𝑥
Numb

1.14 𝑥
= 0.45
𝟔𝟏𝟗𝟕𝟑.)𝑣𝑑 𝟔𝟖𝟒 (𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕
10
𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘) =
𝑅
−6
𝑒
𝜗

3-4
 FLOW MEASUREMENT
AND BERNOULLI’S
4.1EQUATION
Rate of Flow or Discharge (Q)

The quantity of a liquid, flowing per second through a section of a pipe or a channel, is known as
the rate of discharge or simply discharge. It is generally denoted by Q. Now consider a liquid
flowing through a pipe. The unit of discharge is m3/s or litre/s.

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝑸 = 𝑨 𝒙 𝒗

Where: A = Cross-sectional area of pipe (m2)

v = Average velocity of fluid across the section (m/s)

4.1.1 The Continuity Equation

The equation of continuity states that in the steady flow of any liquid in a limited space, where the
parameters if state do not change in time, the rate of flow in any section of flow is the same. This
is known as the equation of continuity of a liquid flow. Consider a tapering pipe through which
some liquid is flowing as shown in figure 4.1(a).

𝑸𝟏 = 𝑸𝟐
𝐴1𝑣1 =
𝐴2𝑣2
Figure 4.1(a): Continuity of a liquid flow

A typical application of mass conservation is at pipe junctions:

𝑸𝟏 = 𝑸𝟐 + 𝑸𝟑
𝐴1𝑣1 = 𝐴2𝑣2 +
𝐴3𝑣3

Figure 4.1(b): Continuity of a liquid flow

EXAMPLE 4.1
The diameters of a pipe at the sections 1 and 2 are 15 cm and 25 cm respectively. Find the
discharge through the pipe if the velocity of water flowing through the pipe at section 1 is 5.5
m/s. Determine also the velocity at section 2.

4-1
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and
Bernoulli's Equation

Solution
Given; d1 = 15 cm - 0.15 m, d2 = 25 cm - 0.25 m, v1 = 5.5 m/s

𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.15)2 =
0.0184 𝑚2
Area:

𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.25)2 =
0.0494 𝑚2
Velocity at section 2:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
= 0.018 𝑥 5.5
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟗
𝒎𝟑/𝒔

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
0.099 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
=
0.049𝑣
2
0.099
𝑣2 =
0.049
EXAMPLE 4.2

= 𝟐.
The diameters of a pipe at the sections 1 and 2 are 10 cm and 15 cm respectively. Find the
discharge through𝟎𝟐𝟎
the pipe if the velocity of water flowing through the pipe at section 1 is 5 m/s.
Determine also the𝒎/𝒔
velocity at section 2.

Solution
Given; d1 = 10 cm - 0.1 m, d2 = 15 cm - 0.15 m, v1 = 5 m/s

𝜋
Area:
𝐴1 = (0.1)2 = 7.854 𝑥
42
10−3 𝑚
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.15)2 =
0.0184𝑚2
Velocity at section 2:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
= (7.854 𝑥 10−3) 𝑥
5
= 0.039 𝑚3/𝑠

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
0.039 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.018
𝑥 𝑣2
0.039
𝑣2 =
0.018
= 𝟐. 𝟏𝟔𝟕
EXAMPLE 4.3
A 30 cm diameter𝒎/𝒔 pipe, conveying water, branches into two pipe of diameters 20 cm and 15 cm
respectively. If the average velocity in the 30 cm diameter pipe is 2.5 m/s, find the discharge in

4-2
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and
Bernoulli's Equation

the pipe. Also determine the velocity in 15 cm pipe if the average velocity in 20 cm diameter pipe
is 2 m/s.

Solution
Given; d1 = 30 cm - 0.3 m, d2 = 20 cm - 0.2 m, d3 = 15 cm - 0.15 m, v1 = 2.5 m/s, v2 = 2 m/s

𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.30)2 =
Area:
0.0714 𝑚2
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.20)2 =
0.0314 𝑚2
𝜋
𝐴3 = (0.15)2 =
0.0184 𝑚2
Discharge:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
= 0.071 𝑥 2.5
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟖 𝒎𝟑/𝒔

𝑄2 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.031 𝑥 2
= 0.062 𝑚3/𝑠

Average velocity in 20 cm diameter pipe:

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
0.178 = 0.062 + 𝑄3
= 0.178 − 0.062
= 0.116 𝑚3/𝑠

𝑄3 = 𝐴3 𝑥 𝑣3
0.116 = 0.018 𝑥 𝑣3
=
0.018
𝑣3
0.116
𝑣3 =
0.018
= 𝟔. a pipe AB with diameter 140 cm at 3.5 m/s and then passes through a pipe
EXAMPLE 4.4

𝟒𝟒𝟒
Water flows through
𝒎/𝒔
BC with diameter of 165 cm. At C, the pipe is branches into pipe CD and CE. Given the diameter
and discharge of pipe CD is 100 cm and one-third of the discharge in pipe AB respectively. The
velocity in pipe CE is 5.0 m/s. Determine:
i. Discharge at pipe AB
ii. Velocity in BC
iii. Velocity in CD
iv. Diameter of CE

Solution

Area:
𝜋
𝐴𝐴 = (1.40)2 =
1.539
𝐵
4𝑚2

4-3
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and

𝜋
Bernoulli's Equation
𝐴𝐵 = (1.65)2 =
2.138
𝐶
4𝑚2
𝜋
𝐴𝐶 = (1.00)2 =
0.785
𝐷
4𝑚2

i. Discharge at pipe AB:

𝑄𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴𝐵 𝑥 𝑣𝐴𝐵
= 1.539 𝑥 3.5
= 𝟓. 𝟑𝟖𝟕
𝒎𝟑/𝒔

ii. Velocity in BC:

𝑄𝐴𝐵 = 𝑄𝐵𝐶
5.387 = 2.138 𝑥
𝑣𝐵𝐶
5.387
𝑣𝐵𝐶 =
2.138
iii. = 𝟐.
Velocity 𝟓𝟏𝟗 𝒎/𝒔
in CD:

𝑄𝐶𝐷 = 𝐴𝐶𝐷
𝑄𝐴 = 0.785 𝑥𝐶
1
3
𝑣
𝑥𝐵𝑣𝐶𝐷 𝐷
3 (5.387) = 𝐶
1

1.796
0.785 𝑥 𝑣= 0.785
𝐷
𝑥 𝑣𝐶𝐷
1.796
𝑣𝐶𝐷 =
0.785
= 𝟐. 𝟐𝟖𝟖
𝒎/𝒔

Discharge in CE:
5.387 =3 1 𝐴𝐵
𝑄
+𝑄𝑄𝐴𝐵 =1𝑄𝐶𝐸𝐶𝐷 + 𝑄𝐶𝐸
= 3 (5.387) 𝐶
5.387+=𝑄1.796 𝐸
+ 𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐸
𝐶𝐸 = 5.387 −
1.796
= 3.591 𝑚/𝑠

iv. Diameter of CE:

𝜋𝐶𝐸
𝑄𝐶𝐸 = 𝐴
3.591 = [ (𝑑𝐶 )2] 𝑥
5 𝑥 𝑣𝐶𝐸 4 𝐸
=
3.59
3.927 (𝑑𝐶𝐸 )2
�𝐶 1
√ 3.927
�𝐸 =
= 𝟎.
𝟗𝟓𝟔 𝒎

4.2 Energy of a Liquid

The energy, in general, may be defined as the capacity to do work. Though the energy exists in
many forms, yet the following are important from the subject point of view:

4-4
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and
Bernoulli's Equation

a. Potential Energy
• It is energy possessed by a liquid particle by virtue of its position. If
a liquid particle is Z metres above the horizontal datum (arbitrarily chosen), the
potential energy of the particle will be Z metre-kilogram (briefly written as mkg)
per kg of the liquid. The potential head of the liquid, at that point, will be Z
metres of the liquid.

b. Kinetic Energy
2
• It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its motion or
will be 𝑣with
2𝑔
velocity. If energy
the kinetic a liquidof particle is flowing
the particle mkga per
mean
kg ofvelocity of vVelocity
the liquid. metreshead
per
2
of the liquid, at that velocity, will be 𝑣 metres of the liquid.
second, then
2𝑔

c. Pressure Energy
• It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its existing pressure. If
a liquid particle is under a pressure of p kN/m2 (i.e. kPa), then pressure energy of
𝑃
the particle will be 𝜔 mkg per kg of the liquid, where w is the specific weight of
�
𝜔
the liquid. Pressure head of the under that pressure will be � metres of the
liquid.

4.2.1 Total Head of a Liquid

The total head of a liquid particle, in motion, is the sum its potential head, kinetic head and
pressure head. Mathematically, total head:

�
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑, 𝑯�= 𝒗 +
𝟐
𝝆𝒈
+𝒁
𝟐𝒈
Where: P = Pressure (N/m2)
 = The density of liquid (kg/m3)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
v = Velocity of liquid (m/s)
Z = Potential energy (m)

Figure 4.2: Energy equation

EXAMPLE 4.5
Water is flowing through a pipe of 100 mm diameter under a gauge pressure of 55 kPa, and with a
mean velocity of 2.0 m/s. Determine the total head, if the pipe is 5 metres above the datum line.

Solution
Given; d = 100 mm - 0.1 m, P = 55 kPa - 55 x 103 N/m2, v = 2.0 m/s, Z = 5 m

Total head:

�
𝐻 =� + 𝑣
2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
+𝑍 (
55 𝑥 103)
= (2.0)2 + +
(1000 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥
5
= 9.81)
5.607 + 0.204
+5
= 𝟏𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟏 𝒎

4-5
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and Bernoulli's
Equation

EXAMPLE 4.6
Water is flowing through a pipe of 5 cm diameter under a pressure of 29.43 N/cm2 (gauge) and
with mean velocity of 2.0 m/s. Find the total head of the water at a cross-section, which is 5 m
above the datum line.

Solution
Given; d = 5 cm - 0.05 m, P = 29.43 N/cm2 - 29.43 x 104 N/m2, v = 2.0 m/s, Z = 5 m

�
Total head:
𝐻 =� + 𝑣
2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
+𝑍
(29.43 𝑥 104)
= (2.0)2 + +
(1000 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥
5
= 9.81)
30 + 0.204
+5
= 𝟑𝟓. 𝟐𝟎𝟒 𝒎 EXAMPLE 4.7
Water is flowing through a pipe of 100 mm diameter under a pressure of 19.62 N/cm2 with mean
velocity of flow 3 m/s. Find the total head of water at the cross-section, which is 8 m above the
datum line.

Solution
Given; d = 100 mm - 0.1 m, P = 19.62 N/cm2 - 19.62 x 104 N/m2, v = 3 m/s, Z = 8 m

Total head:

�
𝐻 =� + 𝑣
2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
+ 𝑍(
19.62 𝑥 104)
= (3.0)2 + +
(1000 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥
8
= 20 + 0.459
9.81)
+8
= 𝟐𝟖. 𝟒𝟓𝟗 𝒎 EXAMPLE 4.8
Water is flowing through a pipe of 250 mm diameter under a gauge pressure of 65 kPa, and with a
mean velocity of 2.5 m/s. Determine the total head, if the pipe is 4.5 metres above the datum line.

Solution
Given; d = 250 mm - 0.25 m, P = 65 kPa - 65 x 103 N/m2, v = 2.5 m/s, Z = 4.5 m

Total head:

�
𝐻 =� + 𝑣
2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
+𝑍 (
65 𝑥 103)
= (2.5)2 + +
(1000 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥
4.5
= 9.81)
6.626 + 0.319 +
4.5
= 𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟒𝟓 𝒎
EXAMPLE 4.9
A circular pipe of 250 mm diameter carries an oil of specific gravity 0.8 at the rate of flow of
120 litres/s and under a pressure of 20 kPa. Calculate the total energy in metres at a point which
is 3 m above the datum line.

4-6
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and
Bernoulli's Equation

Solution
Given; d = 250 mm - 0.25 m, P = 20 kPa - 20 x 103 N/m2, Q = 120 litres/s - 120 x 10-3 m3/s, Z = 3 m

𝜋
𝐴 = (0.25)2 =
Area:

4 𝑚2
0.049
Density:

𝜌 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.8 𝑥 1000 = 800
𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Velocity of oil:

𝑄=𝐴𝑥𝑣
120
120 𝑥 10𝑣−3 = 𝑥 𝑥𝑣
0.049
100.04
−3
= = 𝟐.
9
𝟒𝟒𝟗 𝒎/𝒔

�
Total energy:
𝐻 =� + 𝑣
2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
+𝑍(
20 𝑥 103)
= (2.449)2 + +
(800 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥
3
= 9.81)
2.548 + 0.306
+3
= 𝟓. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 𝒎

4.3 Bernoulli’s Equation

It states, “For a perfect incompressible liquid, flowing in a continuous stream, the total energy of a
practical remain the same, while the particle moves from one point to another.” This statement is
based on the assumption that there are no losses due to friction in the pipe. Consider a perfect
incompressible liquid, flowing through a non-uniform pipe as shown in figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3: Bernoulli’s equation

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between two points 1 and 2 along the same streamline, we have:

𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
(𝒗 𝟏 )𝟐 +
+ + 𝒁 = 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
(𝒗
𝝆𝒈𝟐) 𝒁𝟐
𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝒈
+

4-7
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and
Bernoulli's Equation

EXAMPLE 4.10
The water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 20 cm and 10 cm at section 1 respectively.
The rate of flow through pipe is 35 L/s. The section 1 is 6 m above datum and section 2 is 4 m
above datum. If the pressure at section 1 is 39.24 N/cm2, find the intensity of pressure at
section 2.

Solution
Given; d1 = 20 cm - 0.2 m, d2 = 10 cm - 0.1 m,
P = 39.24 N/cm2 - 39.24 x 104 N/m2,
Q = 35 L/s - 35 x 10-3 m3/s, Z1 = 6 m, Z2 = 4 m

𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.2)2 =
Area:
0.0314 𝑚2
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.1)2 = 7.854 𝑥 10−3
𝑚2 4
Velocity:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
35 𝑥 10−3 =
0.031 𝑥 35 𝑥
𝑣1𝑣=
1
100.03
−3

= 1.129
1 𝑚/𝑠

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
35 𝑥 10−3
= 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= (7.854 𝑥
10−3) 𝑥 𝑣2
35 𝑥 10−3
𝑣2 =
(7.854 𝑥
10−3)
= 4.456
𝑃1 𝑚/𝑠
(𝑣1)2 𝑃2 (𝑣2)2+
+ 𝑍 =
+ 1
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝑍2
39.24 𝑥 104𝜌𝑔
pressure2𝑔 𝑃2
Intensity of
at +
+ + 6 = (4.456) +
(1.129)
(1000 𝑥29.81)section
(2 𝑥 9.81) (1000 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥
2
+ 𝑃2 4
9.81)
2:
40 + 0.065 + 6 = + 1.012 +
4 981
𝑃2
46.065 =0 +
5.012 9810
𝑃2 = (46.065 − 5.012) 𝑥
9810
= 𝟒𝟎𝟐𝟕𝟐𝟗. 𝟗𝟑 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
EXAMPLE 4.11
The diameter of a pipe changes from 300 mm at a section 7 metre above datum to 150 mm at a
section 2.5 metre above datum. The pressure of water at first section is 550 kN/m2. If the velocity
of flow at the first section is 3.5 m/s, determine the intensity of pressure at the second section.

Solution
Given; d1 = 300 mm - 0.3 m, d2 = 150 mm - 0.15 m, P1 = 550 kN/m2 - 550 x 103 N/m2, v = 3.5 m/s, Z1 = 7 m, Z2
= 2.5 m

4-8
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and
Bernoulli's Equation

Venturi head:
𝑆
𝐻 =[ ℎ −1] 𝑥ℎ
13.
𝑆𝑜
= 6 − 1 ] 𝑥 0.35 =
1.
[ 4.41 𝑚
0
Value of venturi meter coefficient:

𝐴1 𝑥 𝐴2
� 𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶 𝑥 [ ] 𝑥
𝑑 √2𝑔𝐻
√(𝐴 )2 −
1
(7.854
2 𝑥 10−3)(1.963 𝑥
�

18 𝑥 10 −3 ( 𝐴 )
= 𝐶𝑑 𝑥 [ 10 )
2 −3
] 𝑥 √(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥
√(7.854 𝑥 10−3)2 − (1.963 𝑥
4.41)
10−3)2
= 𝐶𝑑 𝑥 [(1.542 𝑥 10 −3) ] 𝑥 9.302
−5

(7.605 𝑥 10 )
18 𝑥
𝐶𝑑 10−3
0.01(𝐶𝑑)
= 0.019
= = 𝟎.9
𝟗𝟓

4.5 Orifices

An orifice is an opening, of any size or shape, in a pipe or at the bottom or side wall of a container
(water tank, reservoir, etc.), through which fluid is discharged.

Figure 4.6: Orifice

On the basis of the size of orifice and height of liquid from the center of the orifice, orifices are
classified as:
Small orifice

Large orifice

4.5.1 Jet of Water

The continuous stream of a liquid that comes out or flows out of an orifice, is known as the jet of
water (Figure 4.7).

4 - 14
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and
Bernoulli's Equation

Figure 4.7: Jet of water Figure 4.8: Vena Contracta

4.5.2 Vena Contracta

When the liquid passes through the orifice in the from of jet, it lose some energy. It has been,
observed that the jet, after leaving the orifice, gets contracted. The maximum contraction takes
place at a section slightly on the downstream side of the orifice, where the jet more or less
horizontal. Such a section is known as Vena Contracta (Figure 4.8).

4.5.3 Hydraulic Coefficients

Hydraulic coefficients are:

Coefficient of contraction
• The ratio of area of the Jet, at Vena contracta, to the area of the
Orifice. It is donated by Cc. The value varies Cc is taken 0.61 - 0.69,
where 0.64 is considered as average value.

Mathematically coefficient of contraction:

𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒋𝒆𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒂
𝑪𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂 =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 ��
= 𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒆 ��
Coefficient of velocity 𝑨𝒋

• The ratio of actual velocity of the jet at Vena contracta, to the

theorical velocity. It is denote by Cv. The value varies Cv is taken 0.95 -
0.99, where
0.97 is considered as average value.

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒋𝒆𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒂 𝒗𝒂𝒄

Mathematically coefficient of velocity:
𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝒗 𝒕
𝑪 = =𝒗
𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒋𝒆𝒕 𝒕𝒉
𝒆
Coefficient of Dishcarge
• The ratio of the actual discharge an Orifice to the theorical discharge. It
is denoted by Cd. An average value of coefficient of discharge varies from 0.60
- 0.64.

Mathematically coefficient of flow rate:

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒕

𝑸𝒂𝒄𝒕 = 𝑪𝒗
𝑪𝒅 =
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒙
𝒙 𝑪𝒄
𝒕𝒉𝒆
𝒙𝒐𝑨𝒋 𝑨
=
𝑸
=
𝒗 4 - 15
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and
Bernoulli's Equation
4.5.4 Discharge through a Small Orifice

Orifice is a small opening of any cross-section (such as circular, triangular, rectangular etc.) on the
side or at the bottom of a tank, through which a fluid is flowing. If the head of liquid from the
center of orifice is more five times the depths of orifice, the orifice is called small orifice. It is used
for measuring the discharge of liquid. Discharge through a s orifice may be calculated from:

Velocity:

𝒗𝒕𝒉𝒆 = √𝟐𝒈𝑯

𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒕 = 𝑪𝒗 𝒙 √𝟐𝒈𝑯

Discharge through the orifice:

𝑸𝒕𝒉𝒆 = 𝑨𝒐 √𝟐𝒈𝑯

𝑸𝒂𝒄𝒕 = 𝑪𝒅 𝑨𝒐 √𝟐𝒈𝑯
Where: Cv = Coefficient of velocity for the orifice Cd =

Coefficient of discharge for the orifice Ao = Cross

sectional area of the orifice

H = Height of the liquid above the center
of the orifice EXAMPLE 4.17
A 4 cm diameter orifice in the vertical side of a large tank discharges water under a head of 4 m.
The coefficient of contraction and velocity are 0.62 and 0.98 respectively. Determine:
i. The diameter of the jet at vena contracta
ii. The velocity of jet at vena contracta
iii. The discharge

Solution
Given; do = 4 cm - 0.04 m, Cc = 0.62, Cv = 0.98, H = 4 m

𝜋
Area:
𝐴𝑜 = (0.04)2 = 1.256 𝑥 10−3
𝑚2 4
i. The diameter of the jet at vena contracta:

𝐴
𝐶𝑐
𝑗 𝑜
= � (𝑑 )2
𝐴
𝑗
0.62 4
1.256 𝑥
�

= 10−3
= 0.785(𝑑𝑗2
)
1.256 𝑥
10−3 2
=
625(𝑑𝑗)
0.6
2
𝑑 = √ 625
𝑗

= 𝟎.
𝟎𝟑𝟏 𝒎

4 - 16
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and
Bernoulli's Equation

ii. Velocity of jet at vena contracta:

𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻

= 0.98 √(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 4)

= 𝟖. 𝟔𝟖𝟐 𝒎/𝒔
iii. Discharge:

𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑐 𝑥 𝐶𝑣
= 0.62 𝑥 0.98 = 0.608

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔𝐻

= 0.608 𝑥 (1.256 𝑥 10−3)√(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 4)

= 𝟔. 𝟕𝟔𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝟑/𝒔
EXAMPLE 4.18
A jet of water issues from an orifice of diameter 20 mm under a head of 1 m. What is the
coefficient of discharge for the orifice, if actual discharge is 0.85 L/s.

Given; d = 20 mm 𝜋
Solution

𝐴𝑜 = (0.02)2 = 3.142 𝑥 10−4

- 0.02 m, H = 1 m, Q = 0.85 litres/s - 0.85 x 10-3 m3/s

Area: 𝑚2 4
Coefficient of discharge:

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔𝐻

0.85 𝑥 10−3 = 𝐶𝑑 (3.142 𝑥 10−4) √(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥

1)
= (1.392 𝑥 10−3) 𝑥 𝐶𝑑
= 𝟎.
0.85 𝑥 10−3
𝟔𝟏
𝐶𝑑 =
EXAMPLE 4.19
An orifice with a diameter 1.392 𝑥 10
of 33 mm −3
discharge water from a tank with a velocity of 8.3 m/s. The
water head above the orifice is 6.0 m. Calculate the coefficient of velocity (Cv), coefficient of

contraction (Cc) and the coefficient of discharge (Cd) if the actual flow rate is 0.008 m3/s.

Solution
Given; d = 33 mm - 0.033 m, v = 8.3 m/s, H = 6.0 m, Q = 0.008 m3/s.

𝜋
𝐴𝑜 = (0.033)2 = 8.553 𝑥 10−4
Area:

𝑚2 4
Coefficient of discharge:

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑜 √2𝑔𝐻

0.008 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑥 (8.553 𝑥 10−4)√(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥

6)
= (9.28 𝑥 10−3) 𝑥 𝐶𝑑
0.008
𝐶𝑑 =
(9.28 𝑥 10−3)
= 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟑
4 - 17
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and
Bernoulli's Equation

Coefficient of velocity:

𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻

8.3 = 𝐶𝑣 √(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 6)

=
9.905(
𝐶𝑣)
8.3
𝐶𝑣 =
10.850
𝐶𝑑
= 𝟎.
𝐶 𝟕𝟔𝟓
� =𝐶
𝑣
0.86
=3
�

0.76
Coefficient of contraction:

=5 𝟏.
𝟏𝟐𝟖
4.5.5 Discharge through Large Orifices

If the head of the liquid is less than five times the depth of orifice, it is known as large orifice. For

� 𝑪 𝒃 √𝟐𝒈 𝒙 [(𝑯𝟑 )𝟐 − (𝑯 )𝟐 ]
the total discharge, integrating between the limit of H1 and H2, and introducing a coefficient:

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝑸 = 𝒅 𝟑𝟐 𝟏
𝟑
�

Where:
H1 = Height of liquid above the top of the orifice (m)
H2 = Height of liquid above the bottom of the orifice (m) b =
Length of the orifice (m)
Cd = Coefficient of discharge

Figure 4.9: Large orifices

EXAMPLE 4.20
A rectangular orifice of 1.5 m wide and 0.5 m deep is discharging water from a tank. If the level in
the tank is 3 m above the top of the orifice, find the discharge through the orifice. Take coefficient
of discharge for the orifice as 0.6.

Solution
Given; b = 1.5 m, d = 0.5 m, H1 = 3 m, Cd = 0.6

Height of liquid above the bottom edge of orifice:

𝐻2 = 3 + 0.5 = 3.5 𝑚

4 - 18
 Chapter 4 | Flow Measurement and
Bernoulli's Equation

2
Discharge through the orifice:
3

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑏 √2𝑔 𝑥
3

2 2) − (𝐻1) ] 3
[(𝐻 2 2
3

= 3 (0.6 𝑥 1.5)√(2 𝑥 9.81) 𝑥 [(3.5)2 −

3

= 0.6 𝑥 4.429 𝑥
(3.0)2]
1.352
= 𝟑. 𝟓𝟗𝟐 𝒎𝟑/𝒔 EXAMPLE 4.21
A rectangular orifice of width 1 m and height 1.5 m in the vertical side of a tank. The measured
discharge is 8.21 m3/s. If the bottom edge of the orifice is 5 m below the water level in the
reservoir, determine the coefficient of discharge of the orifice.

Solution
Given; b = 1 m, d = 1.5 m, H2 = 5 m, Q = 8.21 m3/s

Height of liquid above the top edge of orifice:

𝐻1 = 5 − 1.5 = 3.5 𝑚

2
Discharge through the orifice:
3

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑏 √2𝑔 𝑥
3

[(𝐻2)2 − (𝐻1)2 ] 3
2
8.21 = 𝐶𝑑 (1) √(2 𝑥 9.81) 𝑥 [(335.0)2 −
(3.5)2]
3
2
=
(4.429𝐶𝑑) 𝑥
4.632 3
= 13.677𝐶𝑑
8.21
= 𝟎.
𝐶𝑑 =
𝟔𝟎
13.677

4 - 19
 FLUID FLOW
5.1 Energy Losses

The loss of head or energy due to friction in a pipe is known as major loss while the loss of energy
due to change of velocity of the following fluid in magnitude or direction is called minor loss of
energy.

5.1.1 Major Loses and Minor Loses in Pipe System

It is often necessary to determine the head loss, hL, that occurs in a pipe flow so that the energy equation,
can be used in the analysis of pipe flow problems. The overall head loss for the pipe system
consists of the head loss due to viscous effects in the straight pipes, termed the major loss and
denoted hL-major. The head loss in various pipe components termed the minor loss and denoted hL-

minor. The head loss designations of “major” and “minor” do not necessarily reflect the relative importance
of each type of loss. For a pipe system that contains many components and a relatively short
length
5.1.2 of pipe, Energy
Minor the minor loss may
Losses actually be larger than the major loss.
in Pipes

The minor loss of energy includes the following cases:

1 Loss of head due to sudden enlargement

in a pipe.
2 Loss of head due to sudden contraction in a pipe.

3 Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe in a pipe.

4 Loss of head at the exit of a pipe.

5 Loss of head due to bend and pipe fittings.

Loss of head due to sudden enlargement in a pipe

𝒉𝑳 (𝒗 𝟏 −
𝟐
= 𝒗𝟐)𝟐𝒈

5-1
 Chapter 5 | Flow
Fluid

Loss of head due to sudden contraction in a pipe

𝟏 𝟐
𝒉� = [ − � (𝒗 𝟐 )
𝟐

�� 𝟐
𝟏�]
𝒈
�
��

Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe in a pipe

𝒉𝑳 𝟎. 𝟓(𝒗𝟏)𝟐
= 𝟐𝒈

Loss of head at the exit of a pipe

(𝒗𝟐)𝟐
𝒉𝑳
𝟐𝒈
=

Loss of head due to bend and pipe fittings

𝒉𝑳 𝒌 (𝒗 )𝟐
𝟐
= 𝒈
Where:
v = Velocity at outlet of pipe.
k = Loss coefficient

5-2
 Chapter 5 | Flow
Fluid
Table 5.1: Loss coefficients
Fitting Loss coefficient, k
Fully open angle valve 3.2
Fully open globe valve 0.1
Fully open gate valve 0.19
Standard tee 1.8
Standard elbow 0.9

EXAMPLE 5.1
A horizontal pipe of diameter 150 mm has velocity of the pipe is 3.0 m/s. Find the head lost at the
entrance of pipe if the entrance of pipe if square-edge inlet and the rate of flow.

Solution
Given; d = 150 mm - 0.15 m, v = 3.0 m/s

Head lost at the entrance of pipe:

ℎ𝐿 0.5(𝑣1)2
2𝑔
= 0.5(3.0)
=
(2 𝑥
2

= 9.81)
𝟎.
𝟐𝟐𝟗 𝒎
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.15)2 = 0.018
Area:

m2 4
The rate of flow:

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
= 0.018 𝑥 3
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟒
𝒎𝟑/𝒔
EXAMPLE 5.2
Based in figure below, calculate the minor energy losses of flow due to sudden enlargement pipe
when the flow at a rate of 0.25 m3/s.

Solution
Given; Q = 0.25 m3/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.153)2 =
0.0184𝑚2
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.305)2 =
0.0734 𝑚2
Velocity:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
0.25 = 0.018
𝑥 𝑣1
0.25
𝑣1 =
0.018
= 13.889
𝑚/𝑠
5-3
 Chapter 5 | Flow
Fluid
𝑄1 = 𝑄2
0.25 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.126
𝑥 𝑣2
0.25
𝑣2 =
0.073
= 3.425 𝑚/𝑠

Minor energy losses of

𝑣1 −
ℎ𝐿 (pipe:
2𝑔
flow due to sudden

= (𝑣
13.889
2) −
enlargement
2

= 3.425)2
(2 𝑥
= 𝟓. 9.81)
𝟓𝟖𝟏 𝒎 EXAMPLE 5.3
Find the loss of head when a pipe of diameter 200 mm is suddenly enlarges to a diameter of
400 mm. The rate of flow of water through the pipe is 250 L/s.
Solution
Given; d1 = 200 mm - 0.20 m, d2 = 400 mm - 0.40 m, Q = 250 L/s - 250 x 10-3 m3/s

𝜋
Area of pipe:
𝐴1 = (0.2)2 =
0.0314𝑚2
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.4)2 =
0.1264𝑚2
Velocity of pipe:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
250 𝑥 10−3 =
0.031 𝑥𝑣𝑣1= 250 𝑥
1 100.03
−3

= 8.065
1
𝑚/𝑠

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
250 𝑥 10−3 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= 250
0.126𝑥
𝑣2 𝑥 𝑣10−3
2 0.12
= = 1.9846 𝑚/𝑠

Loss of head due to enlargement:

ℎ𝐿 (𝑣1 −
2𝑔
= 𝑣
(8.065
2)
2
−
= 1.984)2
(2 𝑥
= 𝟏. 9.81)
𝟖𝟖𝟓 𝒎 EXAMPLE 5.4
A horizontal pipe of diameter 500 mm is suddenly contracted to a diameter of 250 mm. Find the
loss of head due to contraction if Cc = 0.62. The rate of flow of water through the pipe is 0.85 m3/s.

5-4
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

Solution
Given; d1 = 500 mm - 0.50 m, d2 = 250 mm - 0.25 m, Cc = 0.62, Q = 0.85 m3/s

𝜋
Area:
𝐴2 = (0.25)2 =
0.0494 𝑚2
Velocity of pipe:

𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
0.85 = 0.049 𝑥 𝑣2
0.85
𝑣2 =
0.049
= 17.347 𝑚/𝑠

Head of loss due to contraction:

2
ℎ� = [ 1 − (𝑣2)2
𝐶
1�] 𝑥 �
2𝑔
1 2
ℎ𝐿 = [ −1] 𝑥
0.62 (2 𝑥
�

(17.347)2
9.81)
= 0.376 𝑥 15.337
= 𝟓. 𝟕𝟔𝟕 𝒎 EXAMPLE 5.5
A horizontal pipe of diameter 200 mm has the rate of flow of 500 L/s. Find the velocity of the pipe
and the head lost at the end of pipe.

Solution
Given; d = 200 mm - 0.20 m; Q = 500 L/s - 500 x 10-3 m3/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.2)2 =
0.0314 𝑚2
Velocity:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
500 𝑥 10−3 =
0.031 𝑥𝑣𝑣1=500 𝑥
1 100.03
−3

= 𝟏𝟔.
1 𝟏𝟐𝟗
𝒎/𝒔

Head lost due at the exit of pipe:

(𝑣2)
2
ℎ𝐿(16.129)
=
=2
2𝑔 (2 𝑥
= 9.81)
𝟏𝟑.
𝟐𝟓𝟗 𝒎
EXAMPLE 5.6
A galvanize pipe of diameter 150 mm with the rate of flow is 300 L/s bend at the end of edges
with the coefficient of bend, k = 0.33. Find the head lost due to bend of pipe.

5-5
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

Solution
Given; d = 150 mm - 0.15 m, Q = 300 L/s - 300 x 10-3 m3/s, k = 0.33

Area;
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.15)2 =
0.0184𝑚2
Velocity;

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
300 𝑥 10−3 =
0.018 𝑥𝑣𝑣1= 300 𝑥
1 100.01
−3

= 16.667
8
𝑚/𝑠

Head lost due to bend of pipe;

ℎ𝐿 𝑘(𝑣)2
2𝑔
= 0.33(16.667
= )2
(2 𝑥
= 𝟒.9.81)
𝟔𝟕𝟐 𝒎
5.2 Darcy - Weisbach Equation

The loss of head (or energy) in pipes due to friction is calculated from Darcy-Weisbach equation
is given by:

𝟒𝒇𝑳𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝒇 𝑜𝑟 𝒉𝒇
𝒇𝑳𝑸
𝟐𝒈𝒅𝟐
= =
𝟑𝒅𝟓
Where: v = Average flow of velocity (m/s)
Q = Rate of flow (m3/s)
L = Pipe length (m)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) d =
Diameter of pipe (m)
f = Friction factor
EXAMPLE 5.7
Calculate the energy loss due to friction in pipe, with the pipe length of 400 m and diameter of
0.15 m. Given velocity of water is 1.4 m/s and coefficient of friction = 0.01.

Solution
Given; L = 400 m, d = 0.15 m, f = 0.01, v = 1.4 m/s

4𝑓𝐿𝑣2
ℎ𝑓
2𝑔𝑑
= 4 𝑥 0.01 𝑥 400 𝑥
= (1.4)2
(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥
= 𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟔
0.15)
𝒎
EXAMPLE 5.8
Calculate the head loss due to frictional resistance in a 350 m length pipe and 35 cm diameter
when the flow of rate is 165 L/s. Given f = 0.005.

5-6
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

Solution
Given; L = 350 m, d = 35 cm - 0.35 m, f = 0.005, Q = 165 L/s - 165 x 10-3 m3/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴 = (0.35)2 =
4 𝑚2
0.096
Flow of

𝑄=𝐴𝑥𝑣
rate:

165 𝑥 10−3 =
0.096 𝑥 𝑣 165 𝑥
𝑣
100.09
−3
= = 1.719
6
𝑚/𝑠

4𝑓𝐿𝑣
Head loss:
ℎ𝑓 2
2𝑔𝑑
= 4 𝑥 0.005 𝑥 350 𝑥
= (1.719)2
(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥
= 𝟑. 0.35)
𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝒎 EXAMPLE 5.9
Calculate the discharge through a pipe of diameter 200 mm when the difference of pressure head
between the two ends of a pipe 500 m apart is 4 m of water. Take the value of f = 0.009 in the
formula Darcy Weisbach.

Solution
Given; d = 200 mm - 0.2 m, L = 500 m, f = 0.009, hf = 4 m

𝜋
Area:
𝐴 = (0.2)2 = 0.031
m2 4
Darcy

4𝑓𝐿𝑣
formula:
ℎ𝑓 2
2𝑔𝑑
= 4 𝑥 0.009 𝑥 500 𝑥
4 (𝑣)2
(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥
=
= 0.2)
4.587(𝑣)
4
2

𝑣 = √ 4.58
= 𝟎.7𝟗𝟑𝟒 𝒎/𝒔

Flow of rate:

𝑄=𝐴𝑥𝑣
= 0.031 𝑥 0.934
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟗 𝒎𝟑/𝒔  𝟐𝟗
𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔/𝒔

5-7
 Chapter 5 | Flow

(10.5 𝑥 0.03)
Fluid

=
(3.15 𝑥 10−6)
= 100,000  100 𝑥 103 (𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)

Take values e/d = 0.005 follow curve where Re = 100 x 103 is;  The answer is f = 0.032

Find Re:

𝑅𝑒 =𝑣𝑑
𝜗
(1.05 𝑥 0.03)
=
(3.15 𝑥 10−6)
= 10,000  10 𝑥 103 (𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)

Take values e/d = 0.005 follow curve where Re = 10 x 103 is;  The answer is f = 0.036
5.5 Flows through Pipes in Series

When pipes of different diameters are connected end to end to form a pipeline, they are said to be
in series. The total loss of energy (or head) will be the sum of the losses in each pipe plus local
losses at connections. Pipe in series or compound pipes is defined as the pipes of different lengths
and different diameters connected end to end (in series) to form a pipeline as shown above. The
discharge passing through each pipe is same.

Figure 5.3: Flow through pipes in series

𝑸𝟏 = 𝑸𝟐
𝑨 𝟏 𝒗𝟏 =
𝑨 𝟐 𝒗𝟐

𝑷𝑨 𝑷𝑩
From the Bernoulli’s Theorem
(𝒗 𝑨 )𝟐 + 𝒁𝑩 + 𝒂𝒍𝒍
+ + 𝒁𝑨 = 𝟐 𝟐
(𝒗𝝆𝒈
𝑩) 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔
𝝆𝒈 0𝟐𝒈 + 0++ 𝑍𝐴 = 0 + 𝒈 0 + 𝑍𝐵 +
𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 0.5(𝑣 )2 4𝑓 𝐿 (𝑣 )2 (𝑣 − 𝑣 )2
𝑍𝐴 − 𝑍𝐵 1 + 2 + + (𝑣2)
2
2𝑔 2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔 2 2
1 1 1 1

= 4𝑓2𝑔 +2
2𝐿2(𝑣2) 𝑑 𝑔
Entrance Friction 1 Sudden
Friction 2 Exit
enlargement
EXAMPLE 5.15
Find the rate of flow for the pipe that connected in series as below. Considered all the major and
minor losses.

5 - 12
 Chapter 5 | Flow
Fluid
Solution

Area:
𝜋
𝐴1 = (0.3)2 =
0.0714 𝑚2
Bernoulli’s Equation:
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵
(𝑣𝐴)2 + 𝑍𝐴 (𝑣𝐵)2 + 𝑍𝐵 + 𝑎𝑙𝑙
+ +
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 = 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑍1 − 𝑍2 =𝜌𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙 2𝑔
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
50 − 46 0.5(𝑣1) + 4𝑓𝐿(𝑣1) (𝑣1)
2 2 2

= 2𝑔 + 2𝑔𝑑1
2𝑔 2 (𝑣1)2
= 0.5(𝑣1) + 4 𝑥 0.0052 𝑥 400 𝑥
(2 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 (2 𝑥
(𝑣1)2 +
0.3)
4 = 0.025(𝑣1)2 + 1.414(𝑣1)2 + 9.81)

0.051(𝑣1)2
4
�1 = √
= 1.49
1.4(𝑣1)
2

9
= 1.639
�

𝑚/𝑠

Rate of flow:

𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
= 0.071 𝑥 1.639
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟔 𝒎𝟑/𝒔 EXAMPLE 5.16
A horizontal pipeline 40 m long is connected to a water tank at one end and discharge freely into
the atmosphere at the other end. For the first 25 m of its length from the tank the pipe is 150 mm
diameter and its diameter is suddenly enlarged to 300 mm. The height of water level in the tank is
8 m above the centre of the pipe. Considering all losses of head which occur, determine the rate of
flow. Take f = 0.01 for both sections of the pipe.

Solution

𝜋
Area:

𝐴1 = (0.15)2 =
0.0184 𝑚2
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.30)2 =
0.0714 𝑚2
Velocity:

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
0.018 𝑥 𝑣1 =
0.071 𝑥 𝑣2
𝑣1 =0.071(𝑣2
0.01
= )3.944
8
(𝑣2)

5 - 13
 Chapter 5 | Flow
Fluid
Bernoulli’s Equation:
𝑃𝐴 𝑃 ( )2
(𝑣𝐵)2 𝑣𝐵 + 𝑍 + 𝑎𝑙𝑙
+ 𝑍𝐴 =𝐵
+ 𝜌𝑔 2
𝐵

𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑍𝐴+− 𝑍𝐵 = 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑔
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 0.5 (𝑣 )2 4𝑓 𝐿 (𝑣 )2 (𝑣 − 𝑣 )2
𝐻 1 + 1+ + (𝑣2)
2

= 4𝑓2𝑔 +2 2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔𝑑2

1 1 1 2

2𝐿2(𝑣2)
2𝑔 2𝑔 2
8 0.5(3.944𝑣2)+ 4 𝑥 0.01 𝑥 25 𝑥 (3.944𝑣2)
2

(2 𝑥 9.81
= (3.944𝑣 ) + 2 (2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.15) (2 𝑥
2 − 𝑣2)
4 𝑥 0.01 𝑥 15 𝑥 (𝑣+ ) 2 (𝑣 )2
9.81
(2 𝑥) 9.81 𝑥 0.3) (2 𝑥
2 2

9.81)
= 0.396 (𝑣2)2 + 5.285(𝑣2)2 + 0.442(𝑣2)2 + 0.102(𝑣2)2 +

0.051(𝑣2)2
8
�2 = √
= 6.276
6.27 (𝑣2)
2

6
= 1.129 𝑚/𝑠
�

Rate of flow:

𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.071 𝑥 1.129
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝟑/𝒔
EXAMPLE 5.17
A horizontal pipe of diameter 500 mm is suddenly contracted to a diameter of 250 mm. The
pressure intensities in the large and smaller pipe are given as 13.734 N/cm2 and 11.772 N/cm2
respectively. Find the loss of head due to contraction if Cc = 0.62, and also determine the rate of flow of
water.

Solution
Given; d1 = 500 mm - 0.50 m, d2 = 250 mm - 0.25 m, Cc = 0.62, P1 = 13.734 N/cm2 - 13.734 x 104 N/m2, P2 = 11.772
N/cm2 - 11.772 x 104 N/m2

𝜋
Area,
𝐴1 = (0.50)2 =
0.1964 𝑚2
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.25)2 =
0.0494 𝑚2
Velovity:

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
0.196 𝑥 𝑣1 =
0.049 𝑥 𝑣2
𝑣1 =0.049(𝑣2
0.19
=) 6
0.25
2 (𝑣2)
1 (𝑣2)2
ℎ� = [ −
𝐶
1�] 𝑥 �
2𝑔 2
1 (𝑣2)2
�

ℎ𝐿 = [ − 1] 𝑥
0.62 (2 𝑥
9.81)

5 - 14
 Chapter 5 | Flow
Fluid

= 0.376(𝑣2)
2(2 𝑥

ℎ𝐿 = 9.81)
0.019(𝑣2)2

Bernoulli’s Equation:
𝑃1 𝑃2 (𝑣2)2 + 𝑍 + 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟
+ 𝑍1 =
𝜌𝑔 2
2
(𝑣1)2
(13.734 𝑥 10 + 𝑔 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 (𝑣 )2
+ 2) = (11.772
+) (0.25𝑣 + +
4 2
𝜌𝑔 (2 𝑥 9.81) (9.81 𝑥 1000) (2 𝑥
(9.81 𝑥 1000)
2

10
9.81)
4 ) 0.019(𝑣2)2
14 + (3.186
2𝑔 𝑥 10−3)(𝑣2)2 = 12 + 0.051(𝑣2)2 + 0.019(𝑣2)2
14 − 12 = 0.051(𝑣2)2 + 0.019(𝑣2)2 − (3.186 𝑥
10−3)(𝑣2)2
2 = 0.067
2 (𝑣2)2
�2 = √
0.06
7 𝑚/𝑠
= 5.464
�

Loss of head due to contraction:

ℎ𝐿 = 0.019(𝑣2)2
= 0.019 𝑥 (5.464)2
= 0.567 𝑚

𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
Rate of flow of water:

= 0.049 𝑥
5.464
= 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟖 EXAMPLE 5.18
Two reservoirs 𝒎conveying
𝟑/𝒔 water between two pipes in series of lengths 300 m and 400 m and of
diameters 0.3 m and 0.4 mm, respectively. The difference of head between the two surface is 8 m.
The friction factor for two pipes is 0.02 and 0.015 respectively. Determine the flow rate.

Solution
Given; L1 = 300 m, L2 = 400 m, d1 = 0.3 m, d2 = 0.4 m, f1 = 0.02, f2 = 0.015, H = 8 m

𝜋
Area:
𝐴1 = (0.30)2 =
0.0714 𝑚2
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.40)2 =
0.1264 𝑚2
Velocity:
𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1 = 𝐴2
𝑥 𝑣2

5 - 15
 Chapter 5 | Flow
Fluid
0.071 𝑥 𝑣1 =
0.126 𝑥𝑣 𝑣2=0.126(𝑣2
1
0.07
= )1.775
1
(𝑣2)

𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵
Bernoulli’s Equation:
(𝑣𝐵)2 + 𝑍𝐵 + 𝑎𝑙𝑙
+ + 𝑍 = 2 2
𝐴
(𝑣𝜌𝑔 ) 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑍𝐴+− 𝑍𝐵 = 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑔
𝐵

𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 0.5 (𝑣 )2 4𝑓 𝐿 (𝑣 )2 (𝑣 − 𝑣 )2
𝐻 1 + 1+ + (𝑣2)
2

= 4𝑓2𝑔 +2 2𝑔𝑑1 2𝑔𝑑2

1 1 1 2

2𝐿2(𝑣2)
2𝑔 2𝑔
8 0.5(1.775𝑣2)+ 4 𝑥 0.02 𝑥 300 𝑥 (1.775𝑣2)
2 2

(2 𝑥 9.81
= (1.775𝑣 ) + 2 (2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.3) (2 𝑥
2 − 𝑣2)
4 𝑥 0.015 𝑥 400 𝑥 (𝑣+2)2 (𝑣2)2
9.81
(2 )𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.4) (2 𝑥
= 0.08 (𝑣2)2 + 12.847(𝑣2)2 + 0.031(𝑣2)2 + 3.058(𝑣2)2 +
9.81)
0.051(𝑣2)2
= 16.067 (𝑣2)2
8
�2 = √
16.06
7
= 0.706
�

𝑚/𝑠
Rate of flow:

𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.126 𝑥 0.706
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟗 𝒎𝟑/𝒔
5.6 Flows through Pipes in Parallel

The discharge through the main is increased by connecting pipes in parallel. The rate of flow in
the main pipe is equal to the sum of rate of flow through branch pipes. Hence, from figure 5.4, we
have:

Figure 5.4: Flow Through Pipes In Paralel

𝑸𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑸𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐

In this, arrangement, the loss of head for each branch pipe is same. There for, loss of head for
branch pipe 1 = loss of head for branch pipe 2.

𝟒𝒇𝟏𝑳𝟏(𝒗𝟏)𝟐=
𝟐𝒈𝒅𝟏
𝟒𝒇𝟐𝑳𝟐(𝒗𝟐)𝟐
𝟐𝒈𝒅𝟐

5 - 16
 Chapter 5 | Flow Fluid

EXAMPLE 5.19
A main pipe divides into two parallel pipes which again forms one pipe. The length and diameter
for the first parallel pipe are 2000 m and 1.0 m respectively, while the length and diameter of 2nd
parallel pipe are 2000 m and 0.8 m. Find the rate of flow in each parallel pipe, if total flow in the
main is 3.0 m3/s. The coefficient of friction for each parallel pipe is same and equal to 0.005.

Solution
Given; L1 = 2000 m, d1 = 1.0 m, L2 = 2000 m, d2 = 0.8 m, f1 = 0.005, f2 = 0.005, Q = 3.0 m3/s

4𝑓1𝐿1(𝑣1) = 4𝑓2𝐿2(𝑣2)
2 2𝑔𝑑1 2 2𝑔𝑑2
4 𝑥 0.005 𝑥 2000 𝑥 4 𝑥 0.005 𝑥 2000 𝑥
(𝑣1)2(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1.0) = (𝑣2)2(2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥
0.8) 2.039(𝑣 )2 = 1

2.548(𝑣𝑣2)2 =
√
1
2.03
= 9 (𝑣2)2
2.548
Area: 1.118(𝑣2)
𝜋
𝐴1 = (1.0)2 =
0.7854 𝑚2
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.8)2 =
0.5034 𝑚2
Discharge:

𝑸 = 𝑸𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟎
𝒎𝟑/𝒔

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
= 0.785 𝑥 1.118(𝑣2)
= 0.878(𝑣2)

𝑄2 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.503 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.503(𝑣2)

𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
3 = 0.878(𝑣2) +
0.503(𝑣2)
=
1.381(
𝑣2) 3
𝑣2 =
1.381
= 2.172 𝑚/𝑠
𝑄1 = 0.878(𝑣2)
= 0.878 𝑥
2.172
= 𝟏. 𝟗𝟎𝟕
5 - 17

𝒎𝟑/𝒔
 Chapter 5 | Flow
Fluid
𝑄2 = 0.503 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.503 𝑥
2.172
= 𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝟑 EXAMPLE 5.20
Figure shows 𝒎 𝟑 /𝒔 flow from tank A to tank B through two parallel pipes. The length and
water
diameter of the pipes are given in table 1. Calculate the flow rate in each pipe. Given friction factor
= 0.005. Consider all head losses.

Solution

𝜋
Area:
𝐴1 = (0.1)2 = 7.854 𝑥
10−3 4
𝑚2
𝜋
𝐴2 = (0.15)2 =
0.0184 𝑚2
Pipe 1:

𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵
(𝑣𝐵)2 + 𝑍𝐵 + 𝑎𝑙𝑙
+ + 𝑍𝐴 = 2 2
(𝑣𝜌𝑔𝐵) 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 − 𝑍𝐵 = 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑔
𝑍𝐴 +
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 0.5(𝑣1)2 4𝑓𝐿(𝑣1)2 (𝑣1)2
𝐻 +
= 2𝑔 + 2𝑔𝑑1
2𝑔 2 (𝑣1)2
12 0.5(𝑣1) + 4 𝑥 0.005 𝑥 200 𝑥
(2 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 (2 𝑥
= 𝑣1)2 (𝑣1+
12 =0.1)
(0.025 )2 + 2.039(𝑣1)2 + 9.81)
0.051(𝑣1)2
= 2.115(𝑣1)2
1
�1 = √ 2
2.11
5
= 2.382
�

𝑚/𝑠

𝐻 0.5(𝑣2) + 4𝑓𝐿(𝑣2) (𝑣2)

Pipe 2:
2 2

= 2𝑔 + 2 2𝑔𝑑1
2𝑔 2 (𝑣2)2
12 0.5(𝑣2) + 4 𝑥 0.005 𝑥 200 𝑥
(2 𝑥 9.81) (2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 (2 𝑥
= 𝑣2)2 (𝑣2+
12 =0.15)
(0.025 )2 + 1.359(𝑣2)2 + 9.81)
0.051(𝑣2)2
= 1.435(𝑣2)2
1
�2 √ 2
= 1.43
5
= 2.892 𝑚/𝑠
�

Rate of flow:

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑥 𝑣1
= (7.854 𝑥 10−3) 𝑥
2.382
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝒎𝟑/𝒔

𝑄2 = 𝐴2 𝑥 𝑣2
= 0.018 𝑥 2.892
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟐 𝒎𝟑/𝒔

5 - 18
 MOMENTUM EQUATION
6.1 Momentum

Momentum of a particle or object is defined as the product of its mass and its velocity. Charge of
velocity (in magnitude and/or direction) will charge the momentum.

𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 = 𝒎 𝒙 𝒗

6.1.1 Newton’s Law

Figure 6.1: Newton’s Second Law Figure 6.2: Newton’s Third Law Displaced

If the net force on an The resultant force The fluid will exert an
1st Law

2st Law

3rt Law

object is zero, it will acting on a fluid mass is equal force but in

remain either at rest or simply the product of opposite direction on
moving in a straight its mass and its the surroundings (solid
line at constant speed. acceleration. boundary or body of
fluid producing the
change of velocity).

From Newton’s 2nd law of motion states force equals mass, m times acceleration, a:
∆ ∆
𝑭=𝒎𝒙𝒂 𝒗 𝑜𝑟 𝑭 𝒗
→ 𝒂= =𝒎𝒙
∆ ∆
𝒕 as mass flow rate 𝒕– amount of mass flowing in
𝑚
∆
In fluid problem, the term = can be interpreted
each of time therefore: 𝑡

𝑭 =𝒎 ∆𝒗 = 𝒎 ( 𝒗 𝟐̇
∆𝒕

− 𝒗𝟏) → 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎
𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑭 = 𝝆𝑸(𝒗𝟐 − 𝒗𝟏)
6-1
 Chapter 6 | Momentum
Equation
𝑚̇ = mass flow rate of the jet
𝑣1 = velocity of the jet striking the plate
Where:

𝑣2 = velocity of the jet after impact

Force exerted by the fluid on the surroundings, and it is obtained by decomposing the momentum
equation into x, and y.

𝑭 = 𝝆𝑸 𝒗𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐 𝑭𝒙 = 𝝆𝑸 (𝒗𝟏𝒙 − 𝒗𝟐𝒙) 𝑭𝒚 = 𝝆𝑸 𝒗𝟏𝒚 −

𝒗𝟐𝒚

6.2 Impact of Jet

The liquid comes out from the nozzle is in the form of a jet and if a plate or vane is placed in the
path of the liquid jet, it will exert a force on the plate. The force exerted by the liquid jet on the
plate is known as impact of jet and can be determined depending upon whether the plate is flat,
curved, stationary or moving. The following cases of the impact of jet, i.e., the force exerted by the
jet on a plate will be considered:

Forces on stationary flat plate

Forces on inclined plate

Forces on curved plate

Forces exerted when a jet

is deflected by a moving
flat

Force exerted on pipe bends

6.2.1 Forcesand
on closed conduits
Stationary Flat Plate

Force exerted by the fluid on the plate ( = 90o)

Force exerted by the fluid on the plate

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣(𝑣1𝑥 − 𝑣2𝑥) → 𝑣2𝑥 =

0

𝑭𝒙 = 𝝆𝑨𝒗𝟐

𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎

Force exerted by the fluid on the plate (Inclined plate)

Force component in normal direction

𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑣1𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑣2𝑥) →

𝑣2𝑥 = 0

𝑭𝒏 = 𝝆𝑨𝒗𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽

Force component in x and y-direction

𝑭𝒙 = 𝑭𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝑭𝒚 = 𝑭𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 6-2
 Chapter 6 | Momentum
Equation
6.2.2 Force Exerted When a Jet Deflected by a Moving Flat Plate

Force exerted by the jet on the moving plate ( = 90o).

Force exerted by the fluid on the plate

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣(𝑣1𝑥 − 𝑣2𝑥) → 𝑣2𝑥 = 0

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴 [ 𝑣 − 𝑢 ] [(𝑣1𝑥 − 𝑢)]

𝑭𝒙 = 𝝆𝑨 [ 𝒗 − 𝒖 ]𝟐

𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎

Force exerted by the fluid on the plate (Inclined plate)

Force component in normal direction

𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 (𝑣1𝑥 − 𝑣2𝑥) → 𝑣2𝑥 = 0

𝑭𝒏 = 𝝆𝑨 (𝒗 − 𝒖)𝟐(𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽)

Force component in x and y-direction

𝑭𝒙 = 𝑭𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝑭𝒚 = 𝑭𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽

EXAMPLE 6.1
A flat plate is struck normally by a jet of water 50 mm in diameter. If the discharge is 0.353 m3/s,
calculate the force on the plate when it is stationary.

Solution

𝜋
Given; d = 50 mm - 0.05 m, Q = 0.353 m3/s

Area: 𝐴 = (0.05)2 = 1.963 𝑥 10−3

𝑚2 4
Velocity:

𝑣 =𝑄 =
0.353
𝐴
1.963 𝑥 10−3
= 179.827
𝑚/𝑠

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣2
Force on the plate:

= 1000 𝑥 (1.963 𝑥 10−3) 𝑥

(179.827)2
= 𝟔𝟑𝟒𝟕𝟗. 𝟎𝟎𝟑 𝑵
EXAMPLE 6.2
Water flowing at the rate of 0.03 m3/s strikes a plate held normal to its path. If the force exerted
on the plate in the direction of incoming water jet is 520 N, calculate the diameter of the stream of
water.

Solution
Given; Q = 0.03 m3/s, F = 520 N

6-3
 Chapter 6 | Momentum
Equation
Velocity:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣2
= 𝜌𝑄𝑣
520 = 1000 𝑥
0.03 𝑥 (𝑣)
𝑣
3520
== 17.333 𝑚/𝑠
0
Diameter of the stream of water:

𝑄 =
𝐴 𝑥=𝑣(� 𝑑2 ) 𝑥
0.03
4
17.333 =
�

13.613𝑑2
0.0
3
𝑑 = √13.61
= 𝟎.3𝟎𝟒𝟕 𝒎 ≈
𝟒𝟕 𝒎𝒎
EXAMPLE 6.3
The force exerted by a 25 mm diameter water jet against a flat plate held normally is 700 N.
Calculate the velocity of jet in m/s.

Solution
Given; d = 25 mm - 0.025 m, F = 700 N

Area:
𝜋
𝐴 = (0.025)2 = 4.909 𝑥 10−4
𝑚2 4
Velocity of jet in m/s:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣2
700 = 1000 𝑥 (4.909 𝑥 10−4) 𝑥
(𝑣)2
= 0.491(𝑣)
700
2

𝑣=√
0.49
= 𝟑𝟕.1
𝟕𝟓𝟖 𝒎/𝒔
EXAMPLE 6.4
A 75 mm diameter jet of an oil having specific gravity 0.8 strikes normally a stationary flat plate. If
the force exerted by the jet on the plate is 1200 N, find the volume flow rate of oil.

Solution
Given; d = 75 mm - 0.075 m, s = 0.8, F = 1200 N

Area:
𝜋
𝐴 = (0.075)2 = 4.418 𝑥 10−3
𝑚2 4
Density:

𝜌 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.8 𝑥 1000 = 800
𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

6-4
 Chapter 6 | Momentum
Equation
Velocity of oil:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣2
1200 = 800 𝑥 (4.418 𝑥 10−3) 𝑥
(𝑣)2
= 3.534(𝑣)
120
2

0
𝑣 = √ 3.53
4
= 18.427
𝑚/𝑠

𝑄=𝐴𝑥𝑣
Volume flow rate of oil:

= (4.418 𝑥 10−3) 𝑥
18.427
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟏 𝒎 𝟑/𝒔
EXAMPLE 6.5
A jet water of diameter 75 mm moving with a velocity of 25 m/s strikes a fixed plate in such a way
that the angle between the jet and the plate is 600. Find the force exerted by the jet on the plate:
i. In the direction normal to the plate
ii. In the direction of the jet

Solution
Given; d = 75 mm - 0.075 m, v = 25 m/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴 = (0.075)2 = 4.418 𝑥 10−3
𝑚2 4
i. In the direction normal to the plate:

𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
= 1000 𝑥 (4.417 𝑥 10−3) 𝑥 (25)2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 60𝑜
= 𝟐𝟑𝟗𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟏 𝑵
ii. In the direction of the jet:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
= 2390.771 𝑠𝑖𝑛
60𝑜
= 𝟐𝟎𝟕𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟖 𝑵
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
= 2390.771 𝑐𝑜𝑠
60𝑜
= 𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟓. 𝟑𝟖𝟔 𝑵
EXAMPLE 6.6
A 12 cm diameter jet of water with a velocity of 15 m/s strikes a plate normally. If the plate is
moving with a velocity of 5 m/s in the direction of jet, find the force on the plate.

Solution
Given; d = 12 cm - 0.12 m, v = 15 m/s, u = 5 m/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴 = (0.12)2 =
4 𝑚2
0.011

6-5
 Chapter 6 | Momentum
Equation
Force on the plate:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴 [ 𝑣 − 𝑢 ]2
= 1000 𝑥 (0.011) 𝑥 [ 15
− 5 ]2
= 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑵
EXAMPLE 6.7
A jet of water 70 mm diameter with a velocity of 20 m/s strikes normally a flat plate which is
moving with a velocity of 6 m/s in the direction of jet. Determine the force exerted by the jet on
the moving plate.

Solution
Given; d = 70 mm - 0.07 m, v = 20 m/s, u = 6 m/s

Area:
𝜋 𝜋
𝐴= (𝑑)2 = (0.07)2 = 3.848 𝑥 10−3 𝑚2
4 4

Force exerted by the jet on the moving plate:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴 [ 𝑣 − 𝑢 ]2
= 1000 𝑥 (3.848 𝑥 10−3) 𝑥 [20
− 6]2
= 𝟕𝟓𝟒. 𝟐𝟎𝟖 𝑵
EXAMPLE 6.8
A jet oil (s = 0.85) of diameter 95 mm moving with a velocity of 30 m/s strikes a fixed plate at an
angle of 35o. Calculate the force exerted in the direction of the jet on the plate:

i. When the plate is stationary

ii. When the plate is moving at 15 m/s to the axis of the jet.

Solution
Given; s = 0.85, d = 95 mm - 0.095 m, v = 30 m/s, u = 15 m/s

Area:
𝜋
𝐴 = (0.095)2 = 7.088 𝑥 10−3
𝑚2 4
Density:

𝜌 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.85 𝑥 1000 = 850 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

i. When the plate is stationary:

𝐹𝑛 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
= 850 𝑥 (7.088 𝑥 10−3) 𝑥 (30)2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 35𝑜
= 𝟑𝟏𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟓 𝑵

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
= 3110.115 𝑠𝑖𝑛 35𝑜
= 𝟐𝟏𝟕𝟖𝟑. 𝟖𝟖𝟗 𝑵

𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
= 3110.115 𝑐𝑜𝑠 35𝑜
= 𝟐𝟓𝟒𝟕. 𝟔𝟓𝟕 𝑵

6-6
 HYDROSTATIC FORCE
ON SURFACE
7.1 Hydrostatic Force

Force due to the pressure of a fluid at rest. E.g.: force exerted on the wall of storage tanks, dams,
and ships. Basic conditions for a plane surface submerged in a fluid:

• Force on the surface: Perpendicular to the surface

• Pressure: Linearly dependent only to the vertical depth

7.1.1 Centroid and Centre of Pressure

Centroid, (Cg) Centre of pressure, (Cp)

• Centroid mean centre of • Is defined as the point

the point where his of application of the
body weight acts. total pressure on the
surface.

Figure 7.1: Centroid and Centre of Pressure

7.2 Hydrostatic Force on Submerged Plane Surface

Hydrostatic force due to the fluid acting on the submerged plane surface. The unit is Newton (N)
or kg.m/s2.

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑥 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

=𝑃𝑥𝐴
= 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝑨

The position of the submerged plane surface may be:

1. Horizontal plane surface

2. Vertical plane surface
3. Inclined plane surface

7-1
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on
Surface
7.2.1 Horizontal Plane Surface

For horizontal surface, the equations for inclined surface can be used where  = 0.

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑭𝑹 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝒄𝒈 𝑨

Where:  = Density of the liquid (kg/m3)

g = Acceleration due to gravity
(m/s2)
Height from the fluid surface
hcg =
to the center of gravity of the
Figure 7.2: Horizontal plane surface submerged plane surface (m)
A = Area of the submerged
surface (m2)
7.2.2 Vertical Plane Surface

For vertical surface, the equations for inclined surface can be used where  = 90o.

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑭𝑹 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝒄𝒈 𝑨

𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝 𝑟 𝑒 𝑠 𝑠 𝑢𝑟 𝑒

𝑰𝒄
𝒉𝒄𝒑 +
𝑨 𝟐𝒄𝜽
𝒔𝒊𝒏
= 𝒉𝒄𝒈
𝒉 𝒈
Where: = Moment of inertia about Figure 7.3: Vertical plane surface
Ic
the horizontal line though
the center of gravity of the submerged surface (m4) – see table 3.1
 = The inclined angle – see figure

7.2.3 Inclined Plane Surface

𝐹𝑅 is acting the center of pressure that is at a vertical distance ℎ𝑐𝑝 from the fluid surface
where:

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑭𝑹 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝒄𝒈 𝑨

𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝 𝑟 𝑒 𝑠 𝑠 𝑢𝑟 𝑒
𝑰𝒄
𝒉𝒄𝒑 +
𝑨 𝟐𝒄𝜽
𝒔𝒊𝒏
= 𝒉𝒄𝒈
𝒉 𝒈
Figure 7.4: Inclined plane surface

7-2
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on
Surface

Square
Table 7.1: Geometric Rectangle
Properties of Plane Surface Triangle Circle

Shape

𝟏 𝝅𝒅𝟐
𝑨 = 𝑩𝟐 𝑨 = 𝑩𝑫 𝑨 = 𝑩𝑯 𝑨=
𝟐 𝟒
Area

𝑰𝒄 =𝑩𝑫 𝑰𝒄 =𝑩𝑯 𝑰 =𝝅𝒅

𝑩𝟒
𝑰𝒄 =
𝟑 𝟑 𝟒

Ic 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐 𝟑𝟔 𝒄
𝟔𝟒

(Source: A textbook of hydraulics, fluid mechanics and hydraulic machines, R.S Khurmi)

EXAMPLE 7.1
A rectangular gate of 2 m base and 4 m depth is immersed vertically in an oil of density of
840 kg/m3 as shown in figure below. Find the resultant force on the gate.

Solution
Given; b = 2 m, d = 4 m,  = 840 kg/m3

Area:

𝐴 = 2 𝑥 4 = 8 𝑚2

Resultant force on the gate:

𝐹𝑅 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 840 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 3.5 𝑥 8
= 𝟐𝟑𝟎𝟕𝟑𝟏. 𝟐 𝑵
EXAMPLE 7.2
A circular gate of 2 m diameter is immersed vertically in an oil of density of 900 kg/m3. Find the
oil pressure on the gate and position of the centre of pressure on the gate.

Solution
Given; d = 2 m,  = 900 kg/m3

𝜋
Area:

𝐴 = (2 )2 =
4 𝑚2
3.142
Pressure on the

𝐹𝑅 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
gate:

= 900 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 3 𝑥 3.142

= 𝟖𝟑𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟏𝟓𝟒 𝑵

Position of the centre of pressure on the gate:

𝜋(2)
𝐼𝑐 =
4
6
= 0.785 𝑚4
4

7-3
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on
Surface
𝐼𝑐
ℎ𝑐𝑝 + ℎ𝑐𝑔
𝐴 2𝑐𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛
= ℎ 𝑔
0.785
= +
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2(90𝑜)
(3.142 𝑥
3
= 𝟑.3)
𝟎𝟖𝟑 𝒎 EXAMPLE 7.3
A triangular plate plane of height 3.6 m and base 2.5 m is submerged in water with its vertex at
the water surface. Find the resultant force on the plate and the height of the centre of gravity.

Solution
Given; h = 3.6 m, b = 2.5 m

Area:
1
𝐴 = (2.5 𝑥 3.6) = 4.5
𝑚2 2
Resultant force on the plate:

ℎ𝑐𝑔 =2 𝐻 = (3.6) 2
= 2.4 𝑚
3 3

𝐹𝑅 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 2.4 𝑥 4.5
= 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟗𝟒𝟖 𝑵

Position of the centre of pressure on the gate:

2.5(3.6)
𝐼𝑐 =
3
3
= 3.24 𝑚4
6
𝐼𝑐
ℎ𝑐𝑝 + ℎ𝑐𝑔
𝐴 2𝑐𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛
= ℎ 𝑔
3.24
= +
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2(90𝑜)
(4.5 𝑥
2.4
= 𝟐.2.4)
𝟕𝒎 EXAMPLE 7.4
A circular plate of 2 m diameter is submerged in water. The greatest and least of the plate are 2 m
and 1 m respectively. Find total pressure on the plate and position of the center of pressure.

Solution
Given; d = 2 m

Area:
𝜋
𝐴 = (2 )2 =
4 𝑚2
3.142
Total pressure on
the plate:
ℎ𝑐𝑔 (1 + =
2
= 2) 1.5 𝑚

7-4
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on
Surface

𝐹𝑅 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 3.142
= 𝟒𝟔𝟐𝟑𝟒. 𝟓𝟑 𝑵
Position of the center of pressure:

𝜋(2) �
o

𝐼𝑐 4 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 �
1m

6
= 0.785 𝑚 =
2m

4 1
4

𝐼𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =�
ℎ𝑐𝑝 + ℎ𝑐𝑔 2
𝐴 2𝑐𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛 1
�
= ℎ 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( )
0.785𝑔
2
= + 𝜃 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (30 )𝑥
(3.142
2 𝑜
1.5 30𝑜
= 𝟏.1.5)
𝟓𝟒𝟐 𝒎 EXAMPLE 7.5
A triangular plate of 1 m base and 1.8 m altitude is immersed in water. The plane of the plate is
inclined at 30o with the free surface of water and the base is parallel to and at a depth of 2 m from
water surface. Find the total pressure on the plate and position of the center of pressure.

Solution
Given; b = 1 m, h = 1.8 m

Area:
1
𝐴 = (1 𝑥 1.8) =
22
0.9 𝑚
The total pressure on the plate:

ℎ𝑐𝑔 = 2 + 0.3 =
2.3 𝑚
𝐹𝑅 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥
30o

2.3 𝑥 0.9
= 𝟐𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟔. 𝟕 𝑵
0.6 m

�
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 �
Position of the center of pressure:
0.
1(1.8) = 𝐿 = 0.6 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑜
𝐼𝑐 = 6
3
3 30
= 0.162 𝑚4
6 𝐿 = 0.3 𝑚
𝐼𝑐
ℎ𝑐𝑝 + ℎ𝑐𝑔
𝐴 2𝑐𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛
= ℎ 𝑔
0.162
= +
𝑠𝑖𝑛(0.9
2(30𝑜)
𝑥
2.3
= 𝟐. 2.3)
𝟑𝟐 𝒎
EXAMPLE 7.6
A rectangular plate 2 m wide and 4 m deep is immersed in water in such a way that its plane
makes an angle of 25o with the water surface. Determine the resultant force on the plate and the
position of the centre of pressure.

Solution
Given; b = 2 m, d = 4 m,  = 25o

7-5
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on
Surface

Area:

𝐴 = 2 𝑥 4 = 8 𝑚2

the resultant force on the plate:

ℎ𝑐𝑔 = 1.8 + 0.845 = 2.645 𝑚

𝐹𝑅 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 2.645 𝑥 8
= 𝟐𝟎𝟕𝟓𝟕𝟗. 𝟔 𝑵
25o

2(4) �
Position of the 3centre of pressure:
𝐼𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 � 2 m
1 2
= 10.667 𝑚4 = 𝐿 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
𝐼𝑐 25𝑜
ℎ𝑐𝑝 + ℎ𝑐𝑔
𝐴 2𝑐𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿=
= ℎ 𝑔
10.667 0.845 𝑚
= +
𝑠𝑖𝑛(82(25𝑜)
𝑥
2.645
= 𝟐. 2.645)
𝟕𝟑𝟓 𝒎

7.3 Hydrostatic Pressure Force on Submerged Curved Surfaces

Curved surface CD submerged in a fluid are as shown in the following figures. Two force
components: FH and FV.

The vertical plane surface

projected from the curved
surface (the image)

Horizontal Force, FH :
• FH is the force equivalent to the force acting on the vertical plane
surface projected from the curved surface (the rectangular image).

Vertical Force, FV :
• FV is the force equivalent to the weight of the fluid above the curved
surface.

7-6
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on
Surface
𝑭𝑯 = 𝝆 𝒙 𝒈 𝒙
𝒉𝒄𝒈 𝒙 𝑨
• Horizontal Force

𝑭𝑽 = 𝝆 𝒙
𝒈𝒙𝑽
• Vertical Force

Where:  = Density of the liquid (kg/m3)

g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
hcg = Height from the fluid surface to the center of gravity of the
submerged plane surface (m)
A = Area of the submerged surface (m2)

Resultant force on the plate

𝑭𝑹 = √(𝑭𝑯)𝟐 + (𝑭𝑽)𝟐

Resultant force acting at an angle from horizontal

𝑭𝑽
𝜶 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝑭𝑯

EXAMPLE 7.7
Determine the total pressure acting on the curved gate AB, per metre length, which is quadrant of a
cylinder of radius 1 m. Also determine the angle at which the total pressure will act.

Solution
Given; r = 1 m

Area:

𝐴 = 1 𝑥 1 = 1 𝑚2

Horizontal Force:

ℎ𝑐𝑔 =1 + 1 = 1.5 𝑚
2

𝐹𝐻 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 1
= 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝟏𝟓 𝑵

Vertical Force:

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝜋𝑟
= (𝐿 𝑥 𝑊 𝑥 𝐻 ) +2 ( 𝑥
4
𝐿)
𝜋(1)2𝑥 1) =
= (1 𝑥 1 𝑥 1 ) 4
1.785 𝑚3
+(
𝐹𝑉 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 𝑉
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥
1.785
= 𝟏𝟕𝟓𝟏𝟎. 𝟖𝟓 𝑵

7-7
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on
Surface

Total pressure acting on the curved gate:

𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝐻)2 + (𝐹𝑉 )2
= √(14715)2 + (17510.85)2
= 𝟐𝟐𝟖𝟕𝟐. 𝟕𝟏𝟓 𝑵

Angle at which the total pressure will

act:
𝐹
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
−1 ( 17510.85
𝑉
)
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 1471 𝐹𝐻 ) =
𝟓𝟎𝒐 5 EXAMPLE 7.8
Determine the total pressure acting on the curved gate of 2 m radius and 2 m length of the pool as
illustrated in figure.

Solution
Given; r = 2 m, L = 2 m

Area:

𝐴 = 2 𝑥 2 = 4 𝑚2

Horizontal Force:

ℎ𝑐𝑔 = 2 1.5 = 2.5 𝑚

+
2

𝐹𝐻 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥
2.5 𝑥 4
= 𝟗𝟖𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑵

Vertical Force:

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 𝜋𝑟
= (𝐿 𝑥 𝑊 𝑥 𝐻 ) +2 ( 𝑥
4
𝐿)
𝜋(2)2𝑥 2) =
= (2 𝑥 2 𝑥 1.5) 4
12.283 𝑚3
+(
𝐹𝑉 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 𝑉
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 12.283
= 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟗𝟔. 𝟐𝟑 𝑵

Total pressure acting on the curved gate:

𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝐻)2 + (𝐹𝑉 )2
= √(98100)2 +
(120496.23)2
= 𝟏𝟓𝟓𝟑𝟖𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝑵
EXAMPLE 7.9
A 1.5 m long curved gate in the form of a quadrant of a circle is located in the side of tank
containing water as shown in figure below. Calculate the resultant force acting on the gate and the
position of centre of pressure.

7-8
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on
Surface

Solution
Given; r = 2 m, L = 1.5 m

Area:

𝐴 = 2 𝑥 1.5 = 3 𝑚2

Horizontal Force:

ℎ𝑐𝑔 =2 + 3 = 4 𝑚
2

𝐹𝐻 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 4 𝑥 3
= 𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟕𝟐𝟎 𝑵

𝑉 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
Vertical Force:

𝜋(2)2𝑥
= (1.5 𝑥 2 𝑥 5) 4
1.5)
−(
𝐹=
𝑉 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔𝑚
10.288 𝑥3𝑉
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 10.288
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟐𝟓. 𝟐𝟖 𝑵

Resultant force acting on the gate:

𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝐻)2 + (𝐹𝑉 )2
= √(117720)2 +
(100925.28)2
= 𝟏𝟓𝟓𝟎𝟔𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟎 𝑵

Position of centre of pressure:

𝐹𝑉
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝐹𝐻
100925.28
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝟒𝟏𝒐 EXAMPLE 7.10
A roller gate of cylindrical117720
form 3.0 m in diameter has a span of 10 m. Find the horizontal force
and vertical force acting on the gate, when it is placed on the dam and the water level is such that
it is going to spill.

Solution
Given; r = 3 m, L = 10 m

Area:

𝐴 = 10 𝑥 3 =
30 𝑚2

Horizontal Force:

ℎ𝑐𝑔 =3 = 1.5 𝑚
2

7-9
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on
Surface

𝐹𝐻 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 30
= 𝟒𝟒𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝑵

1
Vertical Force:
𝑉 = 𝑥2 ( )
𝜋𝑑
2
𝑥𝐿
4
1
= 𝑥 ) 𝑥 10 =
2
𝜋 ( 3 )
( 35.343 𝑚3
2
4
𝐹𝑉 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 𝑉
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥
35.343
= 𝟑𝟒𝟔𝟕𝟏𝟒. 𝟖𝟑 𝑵 EXAMPLE 7.11
Find the resultant pressure due to water per metre length, acting on the circular gate of radius
3 metres.

Solution
Given; r = 3 m

Area:

𝐴 = 1 𝑥 3 = 3 𝑚2

Horizontal Force:

ℎ𝑐𝑔 = 3
= 1.5 𝑚
2

𝐹𝐻 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 ℎ𝑐𝑔 𝑥 𝐴
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥
1.5 𝑥 3
= 𝟒𝟒𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝑵

𝜋𝑟
Vertical Force:
𝑉 = (2 𝑥
4
𝐿)
= ( 𝜋(3) 𝑥 1) =
2
4
7.069 𝑚3
𝐹𝑉 = 𝜌 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 𝑉
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 7.069
= 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟒𝟔. 𝟖𝟗 𝑵

Resultant pressure due to water per metre length:

𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝐻)2 + (𝐹𝑉 )2
= √(44145)2 + (69346.89)2
= 𝟖𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 𝑵

7 - 10
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on
Surface
7.4 Pressure Diagram for the Hydrostatic Structure

a. Pressure due to one kind of liquid on one side.

Resultant Force

𝑭𝑹 =𝟏 ( 𝝆𝒈𝒉 ) 𝒙 𝑯 𝒙 𝑳
𝟐

Height of Centre of Pressure

𝒉𝒄𝒑 =𝟐 𝑯
𝟑

b. Pressure due to one kind of liquid over another on one side.

𝑭𝟏 =𝟏 ( 𝝆𝟏𝒈𝒉𝟏 ) 𝒙
Force

𝟐
𝒉𝟏 𝒙 𝑳

𝑭𝟐 = ( 𝝆𝟏𝒈𝒉𝟏 ) 𝒙 𝒉𝟐 𝒙
𝑳

𝑭𝟑 =𝟏 ( 𝝆𝟐𝒈𝒉𝟐 ) 𝒙
𝟐
𝒉𝟐 𝒙 𝑳

Resultant Force

𝑭𝑹 = 𝑭𝟏 + 𝑭𝟐 + 𝑭𝟑
Height𝒉of
𝒄𝒑Centre of Pressure
��
= �� 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝑭
c. 𝟏 ( 𝟑on
Pressure due to liquid 𝒉𝟏both
) +sides.
𝑭𝟐 ( 𝟐
𝒉 𝟐 + 𝒉𝟏 ) + 𝑭 𝟑 ( 𝟑
𝒉 𝟐 + 𝒉𝟏 )

Force

𝑭𝟏 =𝟏 ( 𝝆𝟏𝒈𝒉𝟏 ) 𝒙 𝒉𝟏 𝒙 𝑳
𝟐

𝑭𝟐 = 𝟏 ( 𝝆𝟐𝒈𝒉𝟐 ) 𝒙 𝒉𝟐 𝒙 𝑳
𝟐

Resultant Force

𝑭𝑹 = 𝑭𝟏 − 𝑭𝟐

Height of Centre of Pressure

𝑭
𝒉𝒄𝒑 𝟐
��
=
𝟏 ( 𝟑 𝒉𝟏 ) − 𝑭𝟐 (
𝟐 ��
𝒉𝟐 )
𝟑

7 - 11
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on
Surface

EXAMPLE 7.12
A swimming pool contains 3.6 m deep water in one its sides. If the pool is 10 m wide on this side,
calculate resultant force of the act on the vertical side of the pool. Also calculate the point where
the resultant force acts on the wall.

Solution
Given; d = 3.6 m, L = 10 m

1
Resultant force of the act on the vertical side of the pool:

𝐹 =2 ( 𝜌𝑔ℎ ) 𝑥
𝐻 𝑥1𝐿
= 2 (1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 3.6) 𝑥
3.6 𝑥 10
= 𝟔𝟑𝟓𝟔𝟖𝟖
𝑵
Point where the resultant force acts on the wall:

ℎ𝑐𝑝 =2 𝐻 = 𝑥 (3.6)2
3 3
= 𝟐. 𝟒 𝒎
EXAMPLE 7.13
Find the magnitude and line of the resultant force exerted on the side of a tank, which 1.5 m
square and 1 m deep. The tank is filled half full of a liquid having specific gravity of 2, while the
remainder is filled with a liquid having a specific gravity of 1.

Solution
Given; L = 1.5 m, H = 1 m, s1 = 1, s2 = 2

Density:

𝜌1 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 1 𝑥 1000 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝜌2 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 2 𝑥 1000 = 2000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝐹1 =1 ( 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1 ) 𝑥
Force:
2
ℎ1 𝑥 𝐿

=12 (1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.5) 𝑥 0.5

𝑥
= 1.5
𝟏𝟖𝟑𝟗.
𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝑵
𝐹2 = ( 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1 ) 𝑥 ℎ2 𝑥 𝐿
= (1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.5) 𝑥 0.5
𝑥 1.5
= 𝟑𝟔𝟕𝟖. 𝟕𝟓 𝑵
𝐹3 =1 ( 𝜌2𝑔ℎ2 ) 𝑥
2
ℎ2 𝑥 𝐿

=21 (2000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.5) 𝑥 0.5

= 𝟑𝟔𝟕𝟖. 𝟕𝟓
𝑥 1.5
𝑵

7 - 12
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on
Surface

Resultant force per metre length of the tank:

𝐹𝑅 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3
= 1839.375 + 3678.75 + 3678.75
= 𝟗𝟏𝟗𝟔. 𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝑵

Height of Centre of Pressure:

2 1 2
𝐹
ℎ𝑐𝑝 ( 3 ℎ1 ) + 𝐹 2 ( 2 ℎ2 + ℎ1 ) + 𝐹 3 ( 3 ℎ2 + ℎ1 )
��
1
= 1
1839.375 3( 𝑥 0.5)
2
+ 3678.75 ( 𝑥 0.5 + (0.5)) + 3678.75 ( 2 𝑥
= 0.5 + (0.5)) 2
��

3 9196.87
= 𝟎. 5
𝟕𝒎
EXAMPLE 7.14
A tank contains water a height of 0.5 m and an immiscible liquid of density is 800 kg/m3 above
the water for a height of 1 m. Find the resultant force per metre length of the tank.

Solution
Given; h = 0.5 m, hw = 1 m

𝐹1 =1 ( 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1 ) 𝑥
Force:

2
ℎ1 𝑥 𝐿

=12 (800 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1) 𝑥

=
1𝑥1
𝟑𝟗𝟐𝟒 𝑵
𝐹2 = ( 𝜌1𝑔ℎ1 ) 𝑥 ℎ2 𝑥 𝐿
= (800 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1) 𝑥
0.5 𝑥 1
= 𝟑𝟗𝟐𝟒 𝑵
𝐹3 =1 ( 𝜌2𝑔ℎ2 ) 𝑥
2
ℎ2 𝑥 𝐿

=1 2 (1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.5) 𝑥

=
0.5𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟔.
𝑥 1 𝟐𝟓
𝑵
Resultant force per metre length of the tank:

𝐹𝑅 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3
= 3924 + 3924 + 1226.25
= 𝟗𝟎𝟕𝟒. 𝟐𝟓 𝑵
EXAMPLE 7.15
A bulkhead 3m long divides a storage tank. One side, there is a petrol of specific gravity 0.78
stored to a depth of 1.8 m, while on the other side is an oil of specific gravity 0.80 stored to a
depth of 0.9 m. Determine the resultant force on the bulkhead at which it acts.

Solution
Given; L = 3 m, s = 0.78, s = 0.80, h1 = 1.8 m, h2 = 0.9 m

7 - 13
 Chapter 7 | Hydrostatic Force on
Surface

Density:

𝜌1 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.78 𝑥 1000 =
780 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝜌2 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.80 𝑥 1000 =
800 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

1
= 2 (780 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1.8) 𝑥
Force:

𝐹1= (1𝜌 𝑔ℎ1 ) 𝑥 ℎ1

=𝟑𝟕𝟏𝟖𝟕.
1.8 2𝑥 3 1
𝑥𝐿𝟕𝟒𝟖 𝑵
𝐹2 =1 ( 𝜌2𝑔ℎ2 ) 𝑥
2
ℎ2 𝑥 𝐿
=2 1 (800 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.9) 𝑥
=
0.9𝟗𝟓𝟑𝟓.
𝑥 3 𝟑𝟐
𝑵
Resultant force on the bulkhead:

𝐹𝑅 = 𝐹1 − 𝐹2
= 37187.748 −
9535.32
= 𝟐𝟕𝟔𝟓𝟐. 𝟒𝟐𝟖 𝑵

7 - 14
 BUOYANCY AND
FLOATATION
8.1 Archimedes’ Principle

Whenever a body is immersed wholly or partially in a liquid it is acted by a vertical upward liquid
thrust equal to the weight of the liquid displaced.

Figure 8.1: Volume of Water Displaced

Buoyancy
• When a body is immersed in fluid, an upward force is exerted by the fluid on
the body. This upward force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
body.

Centre of Buoyancy
• The buoyancy force act through the centre of gravity of the displaced fluid and
is called the centre of buoyancy.

Center of Gravity
• Center of gravity refers to the mean location of the gravitational force acting on
a body.

We see that whenever a body is placed over a liquid, either it sinks down or floats on the liquid. If
we analyze the phenomenon of floatation, we find that the body, placed over a liquid, is subjected
to the following two forces:

1. Gravitational Force (Weight of body, W)

2. Up thrust of the liquid (FB )

8-1
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and
Floatation

W < FB W > FB

Float Immersed

Weight of Body, W = Buoyant Force, FB

𝑾 = 𝝆 𝒃 𝒙 𝒈 𝒙 𝑽𝒃 𝑭 𝒃 = 𝝆 𝒇 𝒙 𝒈 𝒙 𝑽𝒅

Where: b = Density of the bodies (kg/m3)

f = Density of the fluid (kg/m3)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
Vb = Volume of the bodies (m3)
Vd = Displaced volume of the fluid (m3)
EXAMPLE 8.1
A uniform body 3 m long, 2 m wide and 1 m deep floats in water. If the depth of immersion is
0.6 m, what is the weight of the body?

Solution
Given; L = 3 m, W = 2 m, H = 1 m, h= 0.6 m

Buoyant force:

𝑉𝑑 = 3 𝑥 2 𝑥 0.6 = 3.6 𝑚3

𝐹 𝐵 = 𝜌 𝑓 𝑔 𝑉𝑑
= 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 3.6
= 35316 𝑁

Weight of the body:

𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
𝑊=
𝟑𝟓𝟑𝟏𝟔 𝑵
EXAMPLE 8.2
If a piece of irregular metal weighting 300 N in air, is completely submerged in water, it weighs
232.5 N. Calculate the volume of the metal.

Solution
Given; Wair = 300 N, Wwater = 232.5 N

Weight of body:

𝑊 = 𝑊𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑊𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 300 − 232.5 = 67.5 𝑁

8-2
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and
Floatation
Volume of the metal:

𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
67.5 = 𝜌𝑓𝑔 𝑉𝑑
67.5 = 1000 𝑥
9.81 𝑥 𝑉𝑑
67.5
𝑉𝑑 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟖𝟏 𝒙
=
9810
𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎𝟑
EXAMPLE 8.3
A wood block measuring 0.4 m x 0.3 m x 0.2 m is floating in the water. The wood density is
600 kg/m3. Determine the value h.

Solution
Given; L = 0.4 m, W = 0.3 m, H = 0.2 m,  = 600 kg/m3

Weight of body:

𝑉𝑏 = 0.4 𝑥 0.3 𝑥 0.2 = 0.024 𝑚3

𝑊 = 𝜌 𝑏 𝑔 𝑉𝑏
= 600 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.024
= 𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟐𝟔𝟒 𝑵

Value h:

𝑉𝑑 = 0.4 𝑥 0.3 𝑥 ℎ = 0.12ℎ

𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
141.264 = 𝜌𝑓𝑔 𝑉𝑑
141.264 = 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.12ℎ
141.26
ℎ 4
1177.
= = 𝟎.
2
𝟏𝟐 𝒎
EXAMPLE 8.4
A rectangular block floating in the water with the dimension of 0.3 m x 0.4 m x 0.3 m (length x
width x height). Calculate the distance of the center of buoyancy and center of gravity of the
rectangular block when the depth of immersion is 0.09 m.

Solution
Given; L = 0.3 m, W= 0.4 m, H = 0.3 m, h = 0.09

Distance OB and OG:

ℎ
𝑂𝐵 =0.09 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟓
2
= 𝒎
2
𝐻
𝑂𝐺 =0.3= = 𝟎.
2
𝟏𝟓 𝒎
2
EXAMPLE 8.5
A block of wood 4 m long, 2 m wide and 1 m deep is floating horizontally in water. If the density of
the wood be 6.87 kg/m3, find the volume of the water displaced and the center of buoyancy
position.

Solution
Given; L = 4 m, W = 2 m, H = 1 m,  = 6.87 kg/m3

8-3
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and
Floatation
Weight of body:

𝑉𝑏 = 4 𝑥 2 𝑥 1 = 8 𝑚 3

𝑊 = 𝜌 𝑏 𝑔 𝑉𝑏
= 6.87 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 8
= 𝟓𝟑𝟗. 𝟏𝟓𝟖 𝑵

Volume of the water displaced:

𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
539.158 = 𝜌𝑓𝑔 𝑉𝑑
539.158 = 1000 𝑥
𝑥 𝑉𝑑539.15
9.81 𝑉
𝑑 8 981
= = 𝟎.0 𝟎𝟓𝟓
𝒎𝟑

Center of buoyancy position:

𝑉𝑑 = 4 𝑥 2 𝑥 ℎ
0.055 =0.05
8ℎ
ℎ 5
8
=
= 𝟔. 𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝒎
ℎ 6.875 𝑥
𝑂𝐵 = −3
10
2
=
2 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑
𝒎
8.2 Stability

The stability of a body can be determined by considering what happens when it is displaced from
its equilibrium.

8.2.1 Stability of Immersed Bodies

When a body is completely immersed in a liquid, its stability depends on the relative positions of
the centre of gravity of the body and the centroid of the displaced volume of fluid, which is called
the centre of buoyancy. The position of centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy in case of a
completely submerged are fixed.

8.2.2 Conditions of Equilibrium of Immersed Bodies

Stable Equilibrium
• When W = FB and point B is above G, the body is said to be in stable equilibrium.

Unstable Equilibrium
• If W = FB, but the B is below G the body is in unstable equilibrium. Thus the
body does not return to its original position and hence the body is in unstable
equilibrium.

Neutral Equibrium
• If FB = W and B and G are at the same point.

8-4
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and
Floatation
8.2.3 Stability of Floating Bodies

The stability of a floating body is determined from the position of metacentric (M). In case of
floating body, the weight of body is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced. The centre of
buoyancy may take different position centre of gravity, depending on the shape of the body and
the position in which it is floating.

8.2.4 Condition of Equilibrium of Floating Bodies

Stable Equilibrium
• If the point M is above G, the floating body will be in stable equilibrium. MG
is positif.

Unstable Equilibrium
• If the point M is below G, the floating body will be in unstable equilibrium.
MG is negetive.

Neutral Equibrium
• If the point M is at the centre of gravity of the body, the floating body will be
in neutral equilibrium.

Figure 8.3: Equilibrium of Floating Bodies

8.3 Meta Centric

It is defined as the point about which a body stars oscillating when the body is tilted by a small
angle. It is the point at which the line of action of the force of buoyancy will meet the normal axis
of the body when the body is given small angular displacement.

8.3.1 Metacentric Height

The distance between the metacentric of a floating body and the centre of gravity body is called
Metacentric Height, (GM).

8-5
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and
Floatation

Figure 8.4: Metacentric Height

8.3.2 Analytical Method for Metacentric Height

i. For equilibrium

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚, 𝑾 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅, 𝑭𝑩

𝝆 𝒃𝒈 𝑽𝒃 = 𝝆 𝒇 𝒈 𝑽𝒅

ii. Distance between the centre of gravity body (OG) and the centre of buoyancy (OB)
from the bottom

𝑩𝑮 = 𝑶𝑮 − 𝑶𝑩
𝑯
=𝒉
𝟐
−
𝟐
iii. Distance between the centre of buoyancy
and the meta centre of a floating body

𝑰𝑪
𝑩𝑴 =
𝑽
Where: IC = 𝒅Moment of inertia of the plan (m4) – see table 7.1 Vd =
Volume of the water displaced (m3)

iv. Metacentric Height

𝑮𝑴 = 𝑩𝑴 −
𝑩𝑮
EXAMPLE 8.6
A block of wood of specific gravity 0.7 floats in water. Determine the metacentric height of the
block if its size is 2 m x 1 m x 0.8 m.

Solution
Given; s = 0.7, L = 2 m, W = 1 m, H = 0.8 m

Density:

𝜌𝑏 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.7 𝑥 1000 = 700 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

8-6
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and
Floatation

Weight of body:

𝑉𝑏 = 2 𝑥 1 𝑥 0.8 = 1.6 𝑚3

𝑊 = 𝜌 𝑏 𝑔 𝑉𝑏
= 700 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 1.6
= 10987.2 𝑁

Value h:

𝑉𝑑 = 2 𝑥 1 𝑥 ℎ = 2ℎ

𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
10987.2 = 𝜌𝑓𝑔 𝑉𝑑
10987.
10987.2
ℎ =2 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 2ℎ
1962
==
0
0.56 𝑚
𝐻
𝐵𝐺 =ℎ
2
− 0.8
2
= 0.56 =
2
− 0.12 𝑚
2
𝐼𝐶
𝐵𝑀 =
𝑉 𝑏𝑑3
𝐼𝐶 = =
2(1)
12 3
𝑑

= 0.167 𝑚4
𝑉𝑑 =122 𝑥 1 𝑥 0.56 =
0.16 1.12 𝑚3
=7
1.1
= 0.149
2 𝑚

Metacentric height of the block:

𝐺𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀 − 𝐵𝐺
= 0.149 − 0.12
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟗 𝒎
EXAMPLE 8.7
A solid cylinder of diameter 4.0 m has a height of 3.0 m. Find the metacentric height of the
cylinder when it is floating in water with its axis vertical. The specific gravity of the cylinder = 0.6.

Solution
Given; d = 4.0 m, H = 3.0 m, s = 0.6

Density:

𝜌𝑏 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.6 𝑥 1000 = 600
𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝜋
𝑉𝑏 = (4)2 𝑥 3 = 37.699
Weight of body:

m3 4

8-7
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and
Floatation

𝑊 = 𝜌 𝑏 𝑔 𝑉𝑏
= 600 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 37.699
= 221896.314 𝑁
Value h: 𝜋
𝑉𝑑 = (4)2 𝑥 ℎ =
4
12.566ℎ
𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
221896.314 = 𝜌𝑓𝑔 𝑉𝑑
221896.314 = 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥
12.566ℎ ℎ
123272.4
= 221896.314
= 6
1.8 𝑚
𝐻
𝐵𝐺 =ℎ
2
− 3
2
= 1.8
− =
2
0.6 𝑚
2
𝐼𝐶
𝐵𝑀 = 𝜋(𝑑) 𝜋(4)
𝑉𝑑 𝐼𝐶 =4 =
4
64 6
= 12.566 𝑚4
𝜋(4)2 4
𝑉𝑑 𝑥 1.8 =
4
12.56 = 22.619 𝑚3
=7
22.60
= 0.556
7 𝑚

Metacentric height of the cylinder:

𝐺𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀
− 𝐵𝐺
= 0.556 −
0.6
EXAMPLE 8.8
= −𝟎.block 2 m long 1.8 m wide and 1.2 m deep is immersed in water. If the
𝟎𝟒𝟒 𝒎
A rectangular timber
specific gravity of the timber is 0.65, prove that it is in a stable equilibrium.

Solution
Given; L = 2 m, W = 1.8 m, h = 1.2 m, s = 0.65

Density:

𝜌𝑏 = 𝑠 𝑥 𝜌𝑤
= 0.65 𝑥 1000 = 650 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Weight of body:

𝑉𝑏 = 2 𝑥 1.8 𝑥 1.2 = 4.32 𝑚3

𝑊 = 𝜌 𝑏 𝑔 𝑉𝑏
= 650 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 4.32
= 27546.48 𝑁

8-8
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and
Floatation

Value h:

𝑉𝑑 = 2 𝑥 1.8 𝑥 ℎ = 3.6ℎ
𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
27546.48 = 𝜌𝑓𝑔 𝑉𝑑
27546.48 = 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥
3.6ℎ
ℎ 27546.48
3531
=
= 6
0.78 𝑚
𝐻
𝐵𝐺 =ℎ
2
− 1.2
2
= 0.78 =
2
− 0.21 𝑚
2
𝐼𝐶
𝐵𝑀 =
𝑉 𝑏𝑑3 2(1.
𝐼𝐶 = =
12 8)3
𝑑

= 0.972 𝑚4
12
𝑉𝑑 = 2 𝑥 1.8 𝑥 0.78 =
0.97 2.808 𝑚3
=2
2.80
=8 0.346 𝑚

Metacentric height of the block:

𝐺𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀 − 𝐵𝐺
= 0.346 − 0.21
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟔 𝒎 (stable
equilibrium) EXAMPLE 8.9
A rectangular pontoon with a mass of 20 tonnes floats in the liquid 985 kg/m3. The size of the
pontoon is 5.0 m in length, 5.0 m in width and 5.0 m in height. Determine the metacentric height
of the pontoon.

Solution
Given; L = 5.0 m, W = 5.0 m, H = 5.0 m, m = 20 tonnes,  = 985 kg/m3

Weight of body:

𝑊=𝑚𝑥𝑔
= 20 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑥 1000 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 9.81 𝑚/𝑠2
= 196200 𝑁

Value h:

𝑉𝑑 = 5 𝑥 5 𝑥 ℎ = 25ℎ

𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
196200 = 𝜌𝑓𝑔 𝑉𝑑
196200 = 985 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 25ℎ

8-9
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and
Floatation
19620
ℎ 0
241571.
=
= 25
0.812 𝑚
𝐻
𝐵𝐺 =ℎ
2
− 5
2
= 0.812
2
−
=2
2.094 𝑚
𝐼𝐶
𝐵𝑀 =
𝑉 (5)4
𝐼𝐶 = 𝑏 =
4
12
𝑑

= 52.083 𝑚4
𝑉𝑑 =125 𝑥 5 𝑥 0.812 =
52.08 20.3 𝑚3
=3
20.
= 2.566
3 𝑚

Metacentric height of the pontoon:

𝐺𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀 − 𝐵𝐺
= 2.566 − 2.094
= 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟐 𝒎
EXAMPLE 8.10
A cylindrical buoy of 3 m diameter and 4 m long is weighing 150 kN. Show that it cannot float
vertically in water.

Solution
Given; d = 3 m, L = 4 m, W = 150 kN - 150 x 103 N/m2

Value h:
𝜋
𝑉𝑑 = (3)2 𝑥 ℎ =
4
7.069ℎ
𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
150 𝑥 103 = 𝜌𝑓𝑔 𝑉𝑑
150 𝑥 103 = 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥
150 𝑥
7.069ℎ ℎ
10
69346.8
3
==
9
2.163 𝑚
𝐻
𝐵𝐺 =ℎ
2
− 4
2
= 2.163 =
2
− 0.919 𝑚
2
𝐼𝐶
𝐵𝑀 =
𝑉 𝜋(𝑑) 𝜋(3)
𝐼𝐶 4 = 4 =
6 6
𝑑

= 3.976 𝑚4
4 4

8 - 10
 Chapter 8 | Buoyancy and
Floatation
𝜋(3)
𝑉𝑑 𝑥 2.163 = 15.289
2
4
3.97 = 𝑚3
= 6
15.28
=90.26 𝑚

Metacentric height of the cylinder:

𝐺𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀 −
𝐵𝐺
= 0.26 −
0.919 EXAMPLE 8.11
A wooden block= of −𝟎.
𝟔𝟓𝟗 𝒎
20 cm long, 8 cm height and 10 cm width is weighing 11.77 N was floating in
water. Calculate the metacentric height of the wooden block.

Solution
Given; L = 20 cm - 0.2 m, W = 10 cm - 0.1 m, H = 8 cm - 0.08 m, W = 11.77 N

Value h:

𝑉𝑑 = 0.2 𝑥 0.1 𝑥 ℎ = 0.02ℎ

𝑊 = 𝐹𝐵
11.77 = 𝜌𝑓𝑔 𝑉𝑑
11.77 = 1000 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.02ℎ
11.7
ℎ 7
196.
==
2
0.06 𝑚
𝐻
𝐵𝐺 =ℎ
2
− 0.08
2
= 0.06− =
2
0.01 𝑚
2
𝐼𝐶
𝐵𝑀 =
𝑉 𝑏𝑑3 0.2(0.1)
𝐼𝐶 = = 1.667 𝑥
12 3
𝑑

= 10−5 𝑚4
𝑉𝑑 =120.2 𝑥 0.1 𝑥 0.06 = 1.2 𝑥
1.667 𝑥 10−3 𝑚3
= 10−5
1.2 𝑥
= 0.014
10−3 𝑚
Metacentric height of the cylinder:

𝐺𝑀 = 𝐵𝑀 − 𝐵𝐺
= 0.014 − 0.01
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒 𝒎 → 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆
𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒖𝒎

8 - 11