CHE-C4E | LECTURE 6

Engineering
Materials

METAL
Engr. Sherald “Shed”
G. Agustin

S
Instructor III, College of
Engineering

March 25, 2023

 CHEMISTRY OF ENGINEERING
MATERIALS: METALS
• Introduction to Metals
• Occurrence of Metals
• Metallurgy
• Band Theory of Electrical Conductivity
• The Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals
• Aluminum
• Transition Metals
 LEARNING OBJECTIVE
► INTRODUCE METAL

► DESCRIBE THE OCCURRENCE AND ABUNDANCE OF METALS IN

THE EARTH’S CRUST.
► EXPLAIN THE PROCESSES INVOLVE IN THE METALLURGY

► EXPLAIN THE CONCEPT OF THE BAND THEORY OF ELECTRICAL

CONDUCTIVITY
► DISCUSS THE PERIODIC TRENDS OF SOME METALS AND THEIR
REACTIVITY.
 METAL

METAL IS AN ELEMENT, COMPOUND OR ALLOY

THAT IS A GOOD CONDUCTOR OF BOTH ELECTRICITY
AND HEAT.

METAL CRYSTAL STRUCTURE AND SPECIFIC

METAL PROPERTIES ARE DETERMINED BY HOLDING
TOGETHER THE ATOMS OF A METAL.
 METAL
WITH THE EXCEPTION OF HYDROGEN, ALL ELEMENTS
THAT FORM POSITIVE IONS BY LOSING ELECTRONS
DURING CHEMICAL REACTIONS ARE CALLED METALS.

THEY ARE CHARACTERIZED BY BRIGHT LUSTER,

HARDNESS, ABILITY TO RESONATE SOUND AND ARE
EXCELLENT CONDUCTORS OF HEAT AND ELECTRICITY.

METALS ARE SOLIDS UNDER NORMAL CONDITIONS

EXCEPT FOR MERCURY.
METAL
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METAL
✔ STATE: METALS ARE SOLIDS AT ROOM TEMPERATURE WITH
THE EXCEPTION OF HG, WHICH IS LIQUID AT ROOM
TEMPERATURE (GA IS LIQUID ON HOT DAYS).
✔ LUSTER: METALS HAVE THE QUALITY OF REFLECTING LIGHT
FROM THEIR SURFACE AND CAN BE POLISHED E.G., AU, AG
AND CU.
✔ MALLEABILITY: METALS HAVE THE ABILITY TO WITHSTAND
HAMMERING AND CAN BE MADE INTO THIN SHEETS KNOWN
AS FOILS. E.G., A SUGAR CUBE SIZED CHUNK OF GOLD CAN
BE POUNDED INTO A THIN SHEET THAT WILL COVER A
FOOTBALL FIELD.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METAL
✔ DUCTILITY: METALS CAN BE DRAWN INTO WIRES.
FOR EXAMPLE, 100 G OF SILVER CAN BE DRAWN
INTO A THIN WIRE ABOUT 200 METERS LONG.
✔ HARDNESS: ALL METALS ARE HARD EXCEPT
SODIUM AND POTASSIUM, WHICH ARE SOFT AND
CAN BE CUT WITH A KNIFE.
✔ VALENCY: METALS TYPICALLY HAVE 1 TO 3
ELECTRONS IN THE OUTERMOST SHELL OF THEIR
ATOMS.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METAL
✔ CONDUCTION: METALS ARE GOOD CONDUCTORS BECAUSE
THEY HAVE FREE ELECTRONS. SILVER AND COPPER ARE THE
TWO BEST CONDUCTORS OF HEAT AND ELECTRICITY. LEAD
IS THE POOREST CONDUCTOR OF HEAT. BISMUTH, MERCURY
AND IRON ARE ALSO POOR CONDUCTORS.
✔ DENSITY: METALS HAVE HIGH DENSITY AND ARE VERY
HEAVY. IRIDIUM AND OSMIUM HAVE THE HIGHEST DENSITIES
WHEREAS LITHIUM HAS THE LOWEST DENSITY.
✔ MELTING AND BOILING POINTS: METALS HAVE HIGH
MELTING AND BOILING POINTS. TUNGSTEN HAS THE
HIGHEST MELTING AND BOILING POINTS WHEREAS MERCURY
HAS THE LOWEST. SODIUM AND POTASSIUM ALSO HAVE LOW
MELTING POINTS.
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METAL
✔ ELECTROPOSITIVE CHARACTER: METALS TEND TO HAVE
LOW IONIZATION ENERGIES, AND TYPICALLY LOSE ELECTRONS
(I.E. ARE OXIDIZED) WHEN THEY UNDERGO CHEMICAL
REACTIONS. THEY NORMALLY DO NOT ACCEPT ELECTRONS.
FOR EXAMPLE:
• ALKALI METALS ARE ALWAYS 1+ (LOSE THE ELECTRON
IN S SUBSHELL)
• ALKALINE EARTH METALS ARE ALWAYS 2+ (LOSE BOTH
ELECTRONS IN S SUBSHELL)
• TRANSITION METAL IONS DO NOT FOLLOW AN OBVIOUS
PATTERN, 2+ IS COMMON (LOSE BOTH ELECTRONS
IN S SUBSHELL), AND 1+ AND 3+ ARE ALSO OBSERVED
 CHEMISTRY OF ENGINEERING
MATERIALS: METALS
• Introduction to Metals
• Occurrence of Metals
• Metallurgy
• Band Theory of Electrical Conductivity
• The Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals
• Aluminum
• Transition Metals
OCCURRENCE OF METAL
OCCURRENCE OF METAL

Clay (mineral of
Bauxite (principal ore of
aluminum)
Aluminum)
OCCURRENCE OF METAL

Manganese nodule
PRINCIPAL TYPES OF MINERALS
 CHEMISTRY OF ENGINEERING
MATERIALS: METALS
• Introduction to Metals
• Occurrence of Metals
• Metallurgy
• Band Theory of Electrical Conductivity
• The Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals
• Aluminum
• Transition Metals
METALLURGY
PRINCIPAL STEPS
PRODUCTION OF METAL
PRODUCTION OF METAL
 Blast
Furnace
PRODUCTION OF METAL
PRINCIPAL STEPS
 CHEMISTRY OF ENGINEERING
MATERIALS: METALS
• Introduction to Metals
• Occurrence of Metals
• Metallurgy
• Band Theory of Electrical Conductivity
• The Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals
• Aluminum
• Transition Metals
 BAND THEORY OF ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
► IN SOLID-STATE PHYSICS, THE BAND STRUCTURE OF
A SOLID DESCRIBES THOSE RANGES OF ENERGY,
CALLED ENERGY BANDS, THAT AN ELECTRON
WITHIN THE SOLID MAY HAVE (“ALLOWED BANDS”)
AND RANGES OF ENERGY CALLED BAND GAPS
(“FORBIDDEN BANDS”), WHICH IT MAY NOT HAVE.
► BAND THEORY MODELS THE BEHAVIOR OF
ELECTRONS IN SOLIDS BY POSTULATING THE
EXISTENCE OF ENERGY BANDS.
 BAND THEORY OF ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
BAND THEORY - A MODEL USE TO STUDY
METALLIC BONDING
⮚ STATES THAT DELOCALIZED ELECTRONS
MOVE FREELY THROUGH “BANDS” FORMED BY
OVERLAPPING MOLECULAR ORBITALS.

THIS THEORY CAN ALSO BE APPLIED TO CERTAIN

ELEMENTS THAT ARE SEMICONDUCTORS.
BAND THEORY OF ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
BAND THEORY OF ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
SEMICONDUCTORS
 SEMICONDUCTORS
SEMICONDUCTORS ARE MATERIALS THAT HAVE
PROPERTIES IN BETWEEN THOSE OF NORMAL
CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS; THEY ARE OFTEN
PRODUCED BY DOPING.
 SEMICONDUCTORS
SEMICONDUCTORS ARE MATERIALS THAT HAVE
PROPERTIES OF BOTH NORMAL CONDUCTORS AND
INSULATORS. SEMICONDUCTORS FALL INTO TWO
BROAD CATEGORIES:

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS - COMPOSED OF

ONLY ONE KIND OF MATERIAL; SILICON AND
GERMANIUM ARE TWO EXAMPLES. THESE ARE ALSO
CALLED UNDOPED SEMICONDUCTORS OR I-TYPE
SEMICONDUCTORS.
 SEMICONDUCTORS
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS - ARE INTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTORS WITH OTHER SUBSTANCES ADDED TO
ALTER THEIR PROPERTIES — THAT IS TO SAY, THEY HAVE
BEEN DOPED WITH ANOTHER ELEMENT.

THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

THAT RESULT FROM DOPING:
1. N-TYPE FOR NEGATIVE, FROM GROUP V, SUCH AS
PHOSPHORUS
2. P-TYPE FOR POSITIVE, FROM GROUP III, SUCH AS
BORON.
 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS ARE A TYPE OF
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR IN WHICH THE DOPANT
ATOMS ARE CAPABLE OF PROVIDING EXTRA
CONDUCTION ELECTRONS TO THE HOST MATERIAL
(E.G., PHOSPHORUS IN SILICON). THIS CREATES AN
EXCESS OF NEGATIVE (N-TYPE) ELECTRON CHARGE
CARRIERS.

P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS ARE A TYPE OF

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR IN WHICH THE ATOMS
HAVE ONE FEWER ELECTRON (E.G., BORON).
 CHEMISTRY OF ENGINEERING
MATERIALS: METALS
• Introduction to Metals
• Occurrence of Metals
• Metallurgy
• Band Theory of Electrical Conductivity
• The Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals
• Aluminum
• Transition Metals
 ALKALI METALS
⮚ Chemical elements found in Group 1 of the periodic
table. They appear silvery and can be cut with a
plastic knife.
⮚ The alkali metals include: lithium, sodium,
potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium.
⮚ Hydrogen is not technically an alkali metal since it
rarely exhibits similar behavior.
⮚ The word "alkali" received its name from the Arabic
word "al qali," meaning "from ashes", which since
these elements react with water to form hydroxide
ions, creating alkaline solutions (pH>7).
ALKALI METALS
COMMON PROPERTIES OF ALKALI METALS
⮚ The most electropositive or the least electronegative
elements
⮚ Common oxidation state +1
⮚ Found dissolved in seawater due to geologic erosion
of minerals
⮚ All the discovered alkali metals occur in nature.
⮚ These metals have a BCC structure with low packing
efficiency.
⮚ Low melting point.
Lithium - lightest known metal and has great chemical
reactivity. Do not occur free in elemental form, are
ALKALINE EARTH METALS
 ALKALINE EARTH METALS
⮚ Less electropositive and less reactive than Group IA
⮚ Common oxidation state +2
⮚ IIA Metals attain stable electron configuration of the
preceding noble gases
⮚ Have much higher melting points than the alkali
metals, harder metals than the Group 1A elements,
but are soft and lightweight compared to many of
the transition metals.
⮚ The chemistry of radium is not well established due
to its radioactivity.
 ALKALINE EARTH METALS

Emerald is a variety of
beryl, a mineral that
contains the alkaline earth
metal beryllium.

Beryllium only occurs

naturally in combination
with other elements in
minerals.
 CHEMISTRY OF ENGINEERING
MATERIALS: METALS
• Introduction to Metals
• Occurrence of Metals
• Metallurgy
• Band Theory of Electrical Conductivity
• The Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals
• Aluminum
• Transition Metals
 ALUMINUM
✔Most abundant metal and the 3rd most
plentiful element in the earth’s crust.
✔Elemental form doesn’t occur in nature
✔Principal ore: bauxite (Al2O3 • H2O)
✔Other minerals containing aluminum are
orthoclase (KAlSi3O8), beryl (Be3Al2Si6O18),
cryolite (Na3AlF6), and corundum (Al2O3).
✔Considered a precious metal until hall
developed a method of aluminum Charles Hall, pioneer of
production development of Aluminum
production
 PREPARATION OF ALUMINUM
ANHYDROUS ALUMINUM OXIDE (AL2O3 OR CORUNDUM)
IS REDUCED TO ALUMINUM BY THE HALL PROCESS. THE
CATHODE IS ALSO MADE OF CARBON AND
CONSTITUTES THE LINING INSIDE THE CELL.
THE KEY TO THE HALL PROCESS IS THE USE OF
CRYOLITE, OR NA3ALF6 (MELTING POINT IS 1000°C), AS
THE SOLVENT FOR ALUMINUM OXIDE (MELTING POINT IS
2045°C).
THE MIXTURE IS ELECTROLYZED TO PRODUCE
ALUMINUM AND OXYGEN GAS. OXYGEN GAS REACTS
WITH THE CARBON ANODES TO FORM CARBON
 PREPARATION OF ALUMINUM
THE LIQUID ALUMINUM
METAL (MELTING POINT
IS 660.2°C) SINKS TO
THE BOTTOM OF THE
VESSEL, FROM WHICH
IT CAN BE DRAINED
FROM TIME TO TIME
DURING THE
PROCEDURE.
 RECYCLING OF ALUMINUM
⮚ ALUMINUM IS ONE OF THE MOST RECYCLED AND
MOST RECYCLABLE MATERIALS ON THE MARKET
TODAY. NEARLY 75% OF ALL ALUMINUM PRODUCED IN
THE U.S. IS STILL IN USE TODAY.

⮚ ALUMINUM CAN BE RECYCLED DIRECTLY BACK INTO

ITSELF OVER AND OVER AGAIN IN A TRUE CLOSED
LOOP.

⮚ RECYCLING ALUMINUM COSTS 95% LESS ENERGY

COMPARED TO PRODUCING PRIMARY ALUMINUM.
RECYCLING OF ALUMINUM
 CHEMISTRY OF ENGINEERING
MATERIALS: METALS
• Introduction to Metals
• Occurrence of Metals
• Metallurgy
• Band Theory of Electrical Conductivity
• The Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals
• Aluminum
• Transition Metals
 TRANSITION METALS
TRANSITION METAL – ANY OF VARIOUS CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
THAT HAVE VALENCE ELECTRONS—I.E., ELECTRONS THAT CAN
PARTICIPATE IN THE FORMATION OF CHEMICAL BONDS—IN TWO
SHELLS INSTEAD OF ONLY ONE.
̶ TRANSITION ELEMENTS ARE THE ELEMENTS THAT ARE FOUND IN
GROUPS 3-12 (OLD GROUPS IIA-IIB) ON THE PERIODIC TABLE.

̶ TRANSITION METALS TYPICALLY HAVE INCOMPLETELY FILLED D

SUBSHELLS OR READILY GIVE RISE TO IONS WITH INCOMPLETELY
FILLED D SUBSHELLS.

̶ MANY TRANSITION ELEMENT COMPOUNDS ARE BRIGHTLY

COLORED DUE TO THE INNER-LEVEL D ELECTRON TRANSITIONS.
 PROPERTIES OF TRANSITION METAL
TRANSITION METALS HAVE SIMILAR PROPERTIES, AND SOME
OF THESE PROPERTIES ARE DIFFERENT FROM THOSE OF THE
METALS IN GROUP 1.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
̶ THEY ARE GOOD CONDUCTORS OF HEAT AND ELECTRICITY
̶ THEY CAN BE HAMMERED OR BENT INTO SHAPE EASILY
̶ THEY HAVE HIGH MELTING POINTS (BUT MERCURY IS A
LIQUID AT ROOM TEMPERATURE)
̶ THEY ARE USUALLY HARD AND TOUGH
̶ THEY HAVE HIGH DENSITIES
 PROPERTIES OF TRANSITION METAL
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
THE TRANSITION METALS HAVE THE FOLLOWING CHEMICAL
PROPERTIES IN COMMON:

̶ THEY ARE LESS REACTIVE THAN ALKALI METALS SUCH AS

SODIUM
̶ THEY FORM COLORED IONS OF DIFFERENT CHARGES
̶ SOME ARE VERY UNREACTIVE (SILVER AND GOLD)
̶ MANY ARE USED AS CATALYSTS
 USES OF TRANSITION METALS
TRANSITION METALS HAVE A WIDE RANGE OF USES. THEIR
PROPERTIES ARE VERY SIMILAR BUT NOT IDENTICAL. IT IS
IMPORTANT TO CHOOSE THE RIGHT TRANSITION METAL FOR
THE REQUIRED PURPOSE.

GOLD
 USES OF TRANSITION METALS
SILVER

COPPER
 USES OF TRANSITION METALS
IRON
IRON IS USUALLY TOO SOFT TO BE USED AS THE METAL ALONE. IT
IS USUALLY MIXED WITH SMALL AMOUNTS OF OTHER ELEMENTS TO
MAKE STEELS, WHICH ARE HARDER AND STRONGER THAN IRON,
BUT EASILY SHAPED. HOWEVER, IRON AND STEEL REACT SLOWLY
WITH WATER AND AIR TO PRODUCE RUST. THEY MUST BE
PROTECTED WITH, FOR EXAMPLE, A LAYER OF PAINT.
 USES OF TRANSITION METALS
CHROMIUM