Chapter One

Introduction to
Data communication and
Computer Networks

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 Outline
 Data Communication
 definition of data communication
 Data representation techniques
 Digital data transmission format
 Transmission impairment
 Mode of data transmission
 Element of data communication
 Computer Networks
 Network definition
 network application
 Network type
 Network component
 Network model
 Transmission medias
 Guided
 Unguided
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 Brain Storming Questions?

1. What is Computer?

2. What is Data?

3. What is Communication?

4. What is a network?

5. What is Data communication and

Computer networks?

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 Introduction to data communication

 Data : information being shared.

 It can be a text, voice, image or video which carried
through wire or wireless medium.
 What is Communication? It the process of
sending/receiving information between two or more
nodes.
 It should be done in two ways
i) Local : face to face communication, It takes
LAN Connection.
ii) Remote : It takes Long distance like MAN &
WAN.
 Data should be Transferred in the form
of 0’s and 1’s Compiled by Yilu 4
 Contd...
 A communication system is combination of hardware
(physical equipment) and software (programs) that transfer
information from source to destination.

 The communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a

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combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs) for data
 Contd...

1. Source: Device that generates data to be transmitted.

2. Transmitter: Converts data from source into transmittable signals.

3. Receiver: Converts received signal into data.

4. Destination: Takes and uses incoming data.

5. Transmission medium: Carries data from source to destination

 Maybe simple as a single link/cable or

 a complex network, e.g. the Internet

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Block Diagram for Communication Model

Characteristics of Communication Model

1) Delivery: The System must deliver the data to the correct Destination.

2) Accuracy - The System must deliver the data at Accurate way.

3) Timeline - The System must deliver the data at Exact Time.

4) Jitter - It refers to the variable in the perfect arrival time.

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 Contd...

 Components of Communication Model

i) Sender iv) Message
ii) Receiver v) Protocol
iii) Medium

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 Contd...

1. Sender: it is a device that sends the information to the receiver.

2. Receiver: it is a device that receives the information from the sender.

3. Medium: it is the physical path between sender to receiver.

4. Messages: this is the passing information’s.

5.Protocols: it is a set of rules and regulations that “ governed “ from

data communication.

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 Mode of transmission

Refers to the direction of signal flow between two linked

devices

It can be

Simplex: unidirectional, only one of the devices can

transmit

E.g. TV transmission, radio

Half-duplex: both can transmit and receive, but not at

the same time

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 Analog and digital data representation
 In transmitting data from a source to a destination:
 The nature of the data
 The transmission media used to propagate the data
 What processing or adjustments may be required along
the way to assure that the received data are under-
standable are the basic criteria's that we should focus
 Generally whether we are dealing with analog or digital
entities
 The term analog and digital correspond to continuous and
discrete respectively.
Data: Entities that convey meaning can be
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i. Analog: data take on continuous values on some
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Signals: Electric or electromagnetic representations of data.
 Can be also digital or analog
 analog signal is a continuously varying electromagnetic wave
that may be propagated over a variety of media .
 Three important characteristics: Amplitude, Frequency,
Phase
 Frequency Spectrum of a signal is the collection of all compo-
nent frequency
 Bandwidth of a signal is the range of component frequen-
cies or the width of the frequency spectrum
 Amplitude: The value of the signal at any point. measured in
volts, amperes, or watts

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 Frequency : The number of periods in one second
 Period : the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to
complete one cycle and have inverse relationship with fre-
quency

Phase: The position of the waveform relative to time zero

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 A digital signal is a sequence of voltage pulses that may be
transmitted over a wire medium
 Bit Interval: the time required to send a single bit
 Bit rate: the number of bit intervals per second usually
expressed in bits per second (bps)
 Signaling is the physical propagation of the signal along a
suitable medium.
Transmission
 Communication of data by propagation and processing of
signals
 The way signals are treated is a function of the transmission
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system
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 Which one is the preferred method of transmission?
 Digital transmission is preferable
 The reasons are
 Digital technology are:
 Continuing to drop in cost and size
 Analog equipment has not shown a similar drop
 Data integrity
 With the use of repeaters the effect of noise and
other signal impairments are not cumulative
(increasing)
 Capacity utilization
 High degree of multiplexing
 Security and privacy
 Encryption techniques can be readily applied to
digital data and to Compiled
analog data that have been
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digitized
 Transmission Impairments
 Signal received may differ from signal transmitted
 Analog - degradation of signal quality
 Digital - bit errors
 A binary 1 is transformed into a binary 0 and vice
versa
 Caused by
 Attenuation and attenuation distortion
 Delay distortion
 Noise
 Solution
 Amplifiers – analog signal
 Repeaters – digital signal
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 Cntd…
Attenuation: it is a phenomenon which occurs when signal
strength falls off with distance
 It depends on medium, such as fiber optic cables carries
signal without attenuation up to 2km.
 In communicating entities, received signal strength:
 Must be enough to be detected
 Must be sufficiently higher than noise to be received
without error

Delay distortion: this distortion can only occur in guided

media
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 Cntd…

Noise: additional signals inserted between transmitter and

receiver is known as noise.

 Noises can be caused by

 Thermal: Due to thermal worry of electrons in a

conductor

 Crosstalk: A signal from one line is picked up by

another

 Impulse Noise : is sharp quick

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18
 Encoding and Modulation Techniques
Encoding: the process of preparing data for efficient
and accurate transmission
Modulation: the process of encoding a baseband source
signal Sm (t) onto a carrier signal.

Four combinations

1. Digital data, digital signal

2. Analog data, digital signal

3. Digital data, analog signal

4. Analog data, analogCompiled

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 1. Digital Data, Digital Signal
A digital signal is a sequence of discrete, discontinuous

voltage pulses

 Each pulse is a signal element.

 Binary data are transmitted by encoding each data bit into

signal elements

E.g. binary 0 is represented by -5V and binary 1 by +5V

 At the receiving end the receiver:

 must know the timing of each bit. That is, the receiver
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 Success factors:
 the signal-to-noise ratio
 the data rate
 the bandwidth
 The encoding scheme that can be used can also improve
performance
 Encoding schemes
1) Non-return to Zero /NRZ
 NRZ-L
 NRZ-I
2) Bi-phase
 Manchester
 Differential Manchester
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 Non Return to Zero (NRZ)
 It uses two different voltage levels (one positive and one
negative) as the signal elements for the two binary digits.
 E.g. Absence of voltage for zero, constant positive voltage
for one
 More often, negative voltage for one value and positive for the
other
 Two Variants
 NRZ-L
 NRZ-I

NRZ-L: Digital 1s are represented as one voltage (amplitude),

while digital 0s are represented as another:
 Cheap to implement
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 Check for voltage of each bit
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NRZ-I: Digital 1s are represented by a voltage change
(high-to-low, or low-to-high), while 0s are represented as a
continuation of the same voltage level:
 1  existence of a signal transition at the beginning of the bit
time (either a low-to-high or a high-to-low transition)
 0  no signal transition at the beginning of the bit time

 Even cheaper to implement (only check for changes)

 A long series of 0s produces a flat, unchanging voltage level

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 Cntd….
NRZ Pros and Cons
Pros
 Easy to engineer
 Make good use of bandwidth
Cons
 dc component
 Lack of synchronization capability
 Used for magnetic recording
 Not often used for signal transmission

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 Biphase
Manchester
 Transition in middle of each bit period
 Transition serves as clocking
 Low to high represents one
 High to low represents zero
Differential Manchester
 Mid bit transition is clocking only
 Transition at start of a bit period represents zero
 No transition at start of a bit period represents one.

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 2. Digital Data, Analog Signals
 The most familiar use of this transformation is for
transmitting digital data through the public telephone
network using modem
 Basis for analog signaling is a continuous, constant-
frequency signal known as the carrier frequency.
 Digital data is encoded by modulating one of the three
characteristics of the carrier: amplitude, frequency, or
phase or some combination of these.
 there are three basic encoding or modulation techniques
 Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
 Frequency-shift keyingCompiled
(FSK) by Yilkal B. 26
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 Amplitude-shift keying (ASK): the two binary values
are represented by two different amplitudes of the carrier
frequency .
– one of the amplitudes is zero the other with value one

 Frequency-shift keying (FSK): the two binary

values are represented by two different frequencies near
the carrier frequency

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 3. Analog Data, Digital Signals
 To send continuous data such as voice information over a
digital transmission medium.
 Example: To transfer analog voice signals off a local loop to
digital end office within the phone system, one uses a
codec.
 The most common technique for using digital signals to
encode analog data is Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)

Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)

Steps
 Sample the continuous data - to measure the value of
the continuous data at equal interval
 Each sample is called
Compiledpulse
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 4.Analog Data, Analog Signal
 There are two principal reasons

 A higher frequency may be needed for effective

transmission
 Modulation permits frequency-division

multiplexing
 The principal techniques for modulation using analog data

are:
 Amplitude modulation (AM)
 Frequency modulation (FM)

 Phase modulation (PM)

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 What is a Network?

 A computer network, often simply referred to

as a network, is
A collection of computers or
other hardware devices

that are connected together by

communication channels

in order to communicate ,
exchange files, and share
resources.
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 Elements of Network

Elements of Network
1. Hardware equipment: The hardware consists of
the physical equipment that carries signals from
one point of the network to another.
2. Network OS/ software: The software consists of
instruction sets that make possible the services
that we expect from a network.
3. Communication channel / Transmission media.
4. Information / data / resource.
5. Protocol.: set rules that governs the
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 Why Networking?

Resource Sharing
Hardware (computing resources, disks, printers)
Software (application software)

Information Sharing Communication

Easy accessibility from anywhere (files, databases) Email
Search Capability (WWW) Message broadcast

Centralize
Distributed
Remote computing administration and
processing
support.

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 Network Classification
 We can classify networks in different ways:

transmission Management Topology

Network size
media method (connectivity)

Wired
LAN Peer-to-peer Bus
network

Wireless
MAN Client/Server Star
network

WAN Ring

Mesh
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 Contd…
I. Local Area Network (LAN): A network that connects a relatively small number
of machines in a relatively close geographical area.

 Metropolitan area Network (MAN): it covers a larger area than that covered by
a LAN and a smaller area as compared to WAN.
 MAN has a range of 5-50km.
 It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet Service
Provider).

III. Wide Area Network (WAN)

 A network that connects two or more LAN
over a potentially large geographic distance
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 2. Management method
i. Clients and Servers
 In a client/server network arrangement, network services are located in a
dedicated computer whose only function is to respond to the requests of
clients
 Server computer is a core component of the network, providing a link to
the resources necessary to perform any task.
 A server computer provides a link to the resources necessary to
perform any task.
 Client computers normally request and receive information over the
network client.
 Client computers also depends primarily on the central server for
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processing activities
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ii. Peer-to-Peer Networks

 Peer-to-peer network is also called
workgroup
 No hierarchy among computers all are
equal
 No administrator responsible for the
network
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 3. Network Topology
 A topology is a way of “laying out” the network.
 Network topology refers to the physical and logical arrangement of nodes
and connections in a computer network, which governs how data flows
between devices.
 Topologies can be either physical or logical.
 Physical topologies describe how the cables are run.
 Logical topologies describe how the network messages travel
The types of network topologies
 Bus (can be both logical and physical)
 Star (physical only)
 Ring (can be both logical and physical)
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 Mesh ....
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i. Bus Topology ii. Star Topology

 Simple and low-cost  Each computer has a

 A single cable called a cable connected to a
trunk (backbone, single point
segment)  More cabling, hence
 Only one computer can higher cost
send messages at a
time  All signals transmission
through the hub; if down,
 Passive topology -
entire network down
computer only listen
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for, not regenerate data  Depending on the
 Contd…
Mesh Topology
Ring Topology

 Every computer serves as a

repeater to boost signals
 Typical way to send data:  very device is connected to another device via a
particular channel
• Token passing: only the
Advantages of Mesh Topology
computer who gets the  Communication is very fast between the nodes.
token can send data  Mesh Topology is robust.
 Disadvantages  The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable
 Provides security and privacy.
• Difficult to add computers
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
• More expensive  Installation and configuration are difficult.
•  The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is
If one computer fails,
required.
whole network fails 
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The cost of maintenance is high
 Network Model
 Networking engineering is a complicated task, which involves software, hardware,
and electric pulses.
 To ease network engineering, the whole networking concept is divided into
multiple layers.
 Each layer is involved in some particular task and is independent of all other
layers. But as a whole, almost all networking tasks depend on all of these layers.
 Layers share data between them and they depend on each other only to take input
and send output.

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 The OSI Model
 In the world of networking, two models play a vital role in describing the
communication and data transfer processes between hosts:
 The OSI/ISO model and the TCP/IP model

Developed by ISO –
Stands for Open Systems
‘International Organization of
Interconnection
Standardization‘, 1974

OSI Model

It is a 7 layer architecture All these 7 layers work

with each layer having collaboratively to transmit
specific functionality to the data from one device to
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 OSI Network model
 Proprietary system: A system that uses technologies kept private by a
particular commercial vendor
 One system couldn’t communicate with another, leading to the need for
 Interoperability: The ability of software and hardware on multiple machines
and from multiple commercial vendors to communicate.
 Open systems: Systems based on a common model of network architecture and a
suite of protocols used in its implementation.
 Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards.
 An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
 It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
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 Contd…

 Seven layers of the OSI model

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 Contd…
 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

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 Contd…
7. The Application Layer
 The application layer enable the user to access the
network.

 These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over

the network.

 This layer also serves as window for the application services to access

the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
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 Contd…
6. The Presentation Layer

• The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

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 Contd…
5. The Session Layer

• This layer is responsible for establishment of

connection, maintenance of sessions, authentication
and also ensures security.

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 Contd…
4. The Transport Layer

• Transport layer is responsible for process-to-process

delivery of the entire message

• The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.

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 Contd…

 The Transport Layer ‘s Functions

The functions of the transport layer are :

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the

message from the (session) layer , breaks the message into

smaller units .

 Each of the segment produced has a header associated with

it.

 At the destination station it reassembles the message.

 Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message
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to correct process, transport layer header includes a type of
 Contd…
3. The Network Layer
 The network layer is responsible for:
 The source- to-destination delivery of packet,
possibly across multiple networks
 The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the
header by network layer.
 Routing : Selection of best path to transmit the
packet, from the number of routes available.

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 Contd…
2. The Data Link Layer

• The data link layer is responsible for the node to node

delivery of the message.

 The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from

one hop (node) to the next.
 The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer
is error free from one node
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 Contd…
 The functions of the data Link layer are :
 Framing: providing a way for a sender to transmit a set of
bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be
accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the
beginning and end of the frame.
 Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer
adds physical addresses (MAC address) of sender and/or
receiver in the header of each frame.
 Error control: providing a mechanism of error control in
which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: flow control coordinates that amount of data
that can be sent before receiving
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 Contd…
1. The Physical Layer

• The lowest layer of the OSI reference model.

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
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 Contd…

The functions of the physical layer are :

 Bit synchronization: provides a clock that controls both

sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at bit

level.

 Bit rate control: defines the transmission rate i.e. the

number of bits sent per second

 Physical topologies: specifies the way in which the

different devices are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star or

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mesh topology.
Summary of layers

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 Shortcomings of OSI
➢ Bad Technology
➢ Session and presentation almost empty
➢ addressing, flow control, and error control, reappear again and
again in each layer
➢ Bad implementation
➢ Bad timing
➢ Bad politic

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 TCP/IP Reference Model
 TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layered suite of communication protocols. It
was developed by the DoD (Department of Defence) in the 1960s.
 It is named after the two main protocols that are used in the model, namely, TCP
and IP. TCP stands for "Transmission Control Protocol" and IP stands for "Internet
Protocol".
 Condensed version of OSI model – contains four layers instead of seven.

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 Contd...

 Shortcomings of TCP/IP

➢ The model does not clearly distinguish the concepts of service,

interface, and protocol

➢ The TCP/IP model is not at all general and is poorly suited to

describing any protocol stack other than TCP/IP

➢ The host-to-network layer is not really a layer at all

➢ Does not distinguish (or even mention) the physical and data link layers

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 Transmission Medias
 The physical path between transmitter and receiver.
• Repeaters or amplifiers may be used to extend
the length of the medium.
• Communication of electro magnetic waves is
guided or unguided

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 Cntd...

Guided or Wired Transmission Media

 This type of media uses cables to transmit signals across the network.

 Wired media, often known as guided media, is a form of transmission

medium.

 The Guided Transmission media is of three types, which are:

1. Coaxial Cable

2. Twisted-Pair Cable

3. Fiber-optic Cable
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 Contd...

1. Coaxial Cable
 The core is made up of copper conductors. Its purpose is the
signal transmission.
 To prevent the copper conductor from overheating, an insulator
is utilized
 The setup is entirely covered in a protective plastic layer.
Its Features –
 Protection from crosstalk
 Expensive
 Usually used in broadcast medium e.g. TV cable
 Segment length of 200m to 500m

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 Cntd...

Advantages of Coaxial Cable

 It is easier to install.

 It has better shielding.

 It is capable of transmitting data over longer distances.

 Coaxial cables are less affected by noise or cross-talk.

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cables are more expensive than others.

 They are less flexible and bulkier.

 They must be grounded in order to avoid crosstalk.

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 Contd...

2. Twisted Pair
 This cable has eight insulated wires. These are paired in groups of 2 and are
twisted together based on a color code.
 The twisting is done to decrease interference caused by the adjacent wires.
 One wire in the pair may send signals to the receiver, while the other serves as a
ground reference.
 The twisted pair is further divided into two parts, i.e., shielded and unshielded.

A. Shielded twisted pair: These twisted pair cables are covered in a braided shield
which acts as a shield from outside interference.
 Protection from crosstalk
 More expensive than UTP
 Difficult to install
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 Segment length of up to 100m
 Contd...

Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

 Shielded Twisted Pair is capable of  It is more expensive.

eliminating crosstalk.  It is more bulky.

 It is faster compared to Unshielded  It is difficult to manufacture and

Twisted pair. install.

b. Unshielded twisted pair: These twisted pair cables do not have a braided shield.
 The 4 pairs are simply covered in a plastic insulator for safety
 Prone to crosstalk
 Inexpensive
 Most common
 Easy to install
 Segment length of up to 100m

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 Contd...
Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair
 Less expensive.
 It is easy to install.
Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair
 Lower capacity.
 Not suitable for long distance transmission

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 Contd...

 color codes of twisted pair

 Straight through cable: When the same color codes are used at both ends. For ex, 568A
on both ends. Alternatively, 568B on both ends.
 Used when connecting different types of devices, for e.g. connecting a PC to a switch, or a
switch to a router
 Crossover cable: When different color codes are used at both ends. For ex, one end is
568A, and the other end is 568B
 Used when connecting similar types of devices. For ex, A PC to a PC or a switch to a
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switch, etc.
 Contd...

3. Fiber Optics Cable: it has become the standard for long-distance communications.
 Optical fibers are transparent, flexible wires composed of glass (silica) or plastic.
 It acts as a waveguide, allowing light to travel between the fiber’s two ends
Advantages of Fiber Optics Cable
Here are some advantages of fiber optics:
 Extremely High-speed data transmission.
 It is capable of long distance transmission without signal disruption.
 It is immune to electromagnetic intervention.
Disadvantages of Fiber Optics Cable
Here are some disadvantages:
 It is very expensive to install and maintain.
 It is very fragile (breakable) in nature and need special handling.
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 Contd...

Unguided or Wireless Transmission Media

 Unguided media, also termed as unbound transmission medium, is a method of
transmitting data without the need for cables.
 Unguided media are also known as wireless communication.
 It is a wireless transmission media channel that doesn’t need a physical medium
to connect to network nodes or servers.
 There are three types of unguided Transmission Media, that are:

 Radio Waves

 Microwave

 Infrared

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 Contd...

1. Radio Waves Transmission

 Radio waves are a type of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation used for
wireless communication.
Frequency Range
 Radio waves have a frequency range of 3 kHz to 300 GHz.
 lower-frequency radio waves are mainly used for AM radio broadcasting.
 On the other hand, higher frequency radio waves are used for FM radio
broadcasting as well as for satellite communications.
Direction of Communication:
 Radio waves can be directional, which means that the waves are focused in a
specific direction. Also, radio waves can be omnidirectional, i.e., propagated in
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 Contd...
Application
 Radio broadcasting
 Mobile communication
 Wireless networking
 Radar and navigation
Advantages of Radio Waves
Disadvantages of Radio Waves
 Long-distance Communication
 Prone to Interference
 Portable
 Atmospheric Disturbances
 Reliable Communication
 Limited Bandwidth
 Easy Installation
 Health Risks
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2. Microwave Transmission
 Microwave transmission is a method of transmitting data through high-frequency
electromagnetic waves over long distances.
Frequency Range
 Microwaves generally operate at a frequency range of 1GHz to 300 GHz.
Direction of Communication
 Microwaves are line-of-sight (LOS) communications.
 It simply means that the transmitting and receiving antennas must be in direct
sight of each other.
 Microwaves are Unidirectional.

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 Application
 Wireless local area networks (WLANs)
 Satellite communications
 Wireless broadband internet
 Point-to-point communication links
Disadvantages of Microwave Transmission
 Military communications
 Interrupted by physical obstacles
 Weather radar system
 Obstructions in the line of sight can
Advantages of Microwave Transmission
affect signal quality
 High-speed data transfer  Security risks
 Easy to install and set up  Limited range
 Cost-effective solutions  Atmospheric conditions can impact
 Reliable communication
microwave signal quality
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 Fast deployment
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3. Infrared Wave: infrared waves are a type of energy that can travel through the air.

 Frequency Range – The frequency range is between 300GHz and 400 THz.

 they can travel a certain distance and then fade away.

 Communication Range – Infrared waves are used to send information between
devices that are close to each other.
 This is known as short-range communication.
How it works?
 In order to send information with Infrared waves, we need special devices known
as transceivers.
 The two devices that need to communicate with one another should be in sight of
each other.
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 Applications
 Wireless Keyboards and Mouse
 TV Remote Control
 Night Vision
 Weapon System
Advantages of Infrared
 Secure and high-speed data transfer
 Low Power Consumption
 Relatively directional
 Easy to Build into Devices
Disadvantages of Infrared
 Line of Sight Requirement
 Limited Range
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 High Attenuation
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 Comparison of Various Transmission Media

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End of Chapter One
Any Question !!!

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