CHAPTER SEVEN

NETWORK PROTOCOLS

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 Outline
• Introduction to protocols
• The OSI reference model
• TCP/IP suits

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 Introduction to Protocols
• The concepts of distributed processing and computer
networking imply that entities in different systems need
to communicate.
• We use the terms entity and system in a very general
sense.
• Examples of entities are:-
- user application programs,
- file transfer packages,
- data base management systems,
- electronic mail facilities,

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• Examples of systems are:-
- computers
- terminals
• For two entities to successfully communicate, they must
"speak the same language.“ :-
- What is communicated,
- How it is communicated, and
- When it is communicated
• Protocol is defined as a set of rules governing the
exchange of data between two entities.

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 The key elements of a protocol are:-
• Syntax. Includes such things as data format, coding, and
signal levels.
• Semantics. Includes control information for coordination
and error handling.
• Timing. Includes speed matching and sequencing.

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 We can group protocol functions into the
following categories:
• Segmentation and reassembly
• Encapsulation
• Connection control
• Ordered delivery
• Flow control
• Error control
• Addressing/routing

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 The OSI Reference Model
• In 1978, the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) released a set of specifications
that described network architecture for connecting
dissimilar devices.
• The OSI reference model is the best-known and most
widely used guide for visualizing networking
environments.
• The OSI reference model architecture divides network
communication into seven layers.
• Each layer covers different network activities,
equipments, or protocols.
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 Relationships among OSI
Reference Model Layers
• Each layer provides services to the next layer.

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 Application Protocols
• Provide application-to-application interaction and data
exchange.
 Transport Protocols
• Facilitate communication sessions between computers.
• Ensure that data is able to move reliably between
computers.
 Network Protocols
• Network protocols provide what are called "link
services.“
• Handle addressing and routing information, error
checking, and retransmission requests.
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 The OSI Layers
• In this section, we will discuss each of the OSI layers.
 Physical Layer
• The physical layer covers the physical interface
between devices and the rules by which bits are
passed from one computer to another.
• The physical layer has four important characteristics:
1 - Mechanical. Relates to the physical properties of
the interface to a transmission medium.( e.g.,
circuits)
2 - Electrical. Relates to the representation of bits
(e.g., in terms of voltage levels) and the data
transmission rate of bits. 11
3 - Functional. Specifies the functions performed by
individual circuits of the physical interface between a
system and the transmission medium.
4 - Procedural. Specifies the sequence of events by which
bit streams are exchanged across the physical medium.
 Main functions of physical layer
• It transmits the unstructured, raw bit stream over a
physical medium.
• It establishes and maintains a physical link between
communicating computers.
• It defines how the cable is attached to the NIC.
• It defines how each bit is translated into the appropriate
electrical or optical pulses for the network cable.
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 Physical Layer activities
• Connection Types
• Transmission
• Signal Types
• Modulation
• Synchronization
• Transmission Media
• Multiplexing

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 Data link layer
– Means of activating, maintaining and deactivating a
reliable link.
– Error detection and control.
– Higher layers may assume error free transmission.

• At sending end; the data-link layer, sends data frames

from the network layer to the physical layer.
• At the receiving end; the data-link layer packages raw
bits from the physical layer into data frames.

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 The above figure shows a simple data frame.
• The sender ID represents the address of the computer
that is sending the information.
• The destination ID represents the address of the
computer to which the information is being sent.
• The control information is used for frame type, and
routing information.
• The cyclical redundancy check (CRC) provides error
correction and verification.
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 Data Link Protocol Functions
 Acknowledgments
• An acknowledgment (ACK) is sent by a receiver to a
transmitter to indicate that a frame has been
received seemingly intact.
• A negative acknowledgment (NAK) is sent by a
receiver to a transmitter to indicate that:-
– a corrupt frame has been received, or
– a frame is missing.

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 Timers
• An important timer called T are used by Link Protocol.
• T is set by a transmitter upon transmitting a frame.
• The transmitter expects to receive an acknowledgment
frame before T expires.

 Retransmission
• Data link layer’s approach to dealing with corrupted or
lost frames is to retransmit them.

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 Selective Reject, upon encountering a faulty frame, the
receiver requests the retransmission of that specific
frame.
 Go-Back-N, involves the transmitter requesting the
retransmission of the faulty frame as well as all
succeeding frames.
(i.e., all frames transmitted after the faulty frame)
• The advantage of Selective Reject over Go-Back-N is
that it leads to better throughput.

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 Error Checking
• The most important role of the data link layer is
to provide error-free transmission.
• Many different error detection methods have
been devised.
• Parity checking is a simple error detection
method used with character-oriented protocols.
• One bit in every character bit sequence is
reserved for parity.
• This bit is set by the transmitter to 0 or 1.

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• So that the total number of 1 bits in the character is
always even (in case of even parity checking) or always
odd (in case of odd parity checking).
• The receiver checks the parity bit of each character to
see if it is as expected.
Even parity error checking.

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 Network layer
• The network layer handles the routing of data packets
across the network.
• It defines the interface between a host and a network
node.
 Network Layer activities
• Switching
• Circuit switching
• Packet switching

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 Packet Handling

• In this section, we will look at packets, their structure,

and how they are handled by the network layer.
Packet Structure
• The following figure Shows the general structure of a
datagram packet.

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 Routing

 Routing is the task of selecting a path for the transport of

packets across the network.
 Routing is generally viewed as an optimization problem
with the objective of choosing an optimal path according
to certain criteria:
• Transmission cost (measured in terms of tied up network
resources).
• Transmission delay (measured as the delay involved in
delivering each packet).
• Throughput (measured as the total number of packets
delivered per unit of time).
 The overall cost depends on all these three, and an
optimal route is one that minimizes the overall cost. 23
• This can be represented by a weighted network, where
an abstract cost figure is associated with each link.
• The cost of a route is the sum of the cost of its links.

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 There are three classes of routing algorithms:
• Flooding
• Static Routing
• Dynamic Routing

 In flooding, every possible path between the source

and the destination station are exercised.
 Each node, upon receiving a packet, forwards copies of
it to all its neighbouring nodes.
 Its major disadvantage, however, is that it quickly
congests the network.

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• In static routing, a fixed routing directory is used to
guide the selection of a route which remains unchanged
for the duration of the connection.

•The advantages of static routing are its simplicity and

ease of implementation.
•Its disadvantage is lack of flexibility in face of possible
variations within the network.
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• Dynamic routing attempts to overcome the limitations
of static routing by taking network variations into
account when selecting a route.
• Each node maintains a route directory which describes
the cost associated with reaching any other node via a
neighboring node.
Dynamic route directory for node ‘d’

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 IP
• The Internet Protocol (IP) is a connectionless datagram protocol
developed by the US Department of Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency (DARPA).
• IP datagrams are referred to as Internet Protocol Data Units, or
IPDUs.

To be continued in Chapter five

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 Transport layer
• It provides mechanism for the exchange of data
between end systems.
• The connection-oriented transport service ensures that
data is delivered:-
- error-free,
- in sequence,
- with no losses and
- no duplications.
• It also provides quality of service to session entities by
specifying ; acceptable error rates, maximum delay,
priority, and security. Example: TCP
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 Session Layer

 It controls dialogues between applications.

 The key services provided by the session layer include:
• Dialogue discipline. This can be two-way simultaneous
(full duplex) or two way alternate (half duplex).
• Grouping. The flow of data can be marked to define
groups of data.
• Recovery. The session layer can provide a check
pointing mechanism.
• Session. allows two applications on different computers
to open, use, and close a connection.

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 Presentation Layer
– Data formats and coding
– Encryption

 Application Layer
• It provides services that directly support user
applications, such as software for file transfers,
database access, and e-mail.
• Means for applications to access OSI environment.
• Example: FTP, HTTP, SMTP

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 1- HTTP
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) works with the
World Wide Web.
• A Web browser is a client-server application.
• Hyperlinks make the World Wide Web easy to navigate.
• A hyperlink is an object, word, phrase, or picture, on a
Web page.
• The Web page contains an address location known as a
Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
• Usually, the format of an URL. Consists of four parts:
protocol, server (or domain), path, and filename.

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• Example:
• In the URL :http: //www.xyz.Com.tutor/start/main.htm
• The structure of this URL
• Protocol: http:// tells the browser which protocol to
use.
• The second part, "www", is the hostname or name of a
specific machine with a specific IP address of the Web
server using DNS.
• Domain (SERVER) name: xyz
• Domain type: COM
• Path: tutor/Start/
• File name: main. Htm
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2 -FTP
 FTP is a reliable, connection-oriented service.
 It uses TCP to transfer files between systems that
support FTP.
 The main function of FTP is to transfer files from one
computer to another by copying and moving.
 When files are copied from a server: -
• FTP first establishes a control connection between the
client and the server.
• Then a second connection is established, which is a
link between the computers through which the data is
transferred.

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3- TFTP is a connectionless service.
• It uses User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
• TFTP is used on the router to transfer configuration files.
4- SMTP
• Within the Internet, email is delivered by having the
source machine establish a TCP connection to port 25 of
the destination machine.
• Listening to this port is an email daemon that "speaks"
SMTP.
• This daemon accepts incoming connections and copies
messages from them into the appropriate mailboxes.
• Email servers communicate with each other using the
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) to send and receive
mail. 36
 Data Packets and the OSI Reference Model

• Data packets are assembled and disassembled according

to the OSI reference model.
• The packet-creation process begins at the application
layer of the OSI reference model.
• At each layer, information relevant to that layer is added
to the data.
• The following figure shows the assembly of a packet in
the sending workstation and the disassembly of the
packet in the receiving workstation.

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• Packet assembly and disassembly process
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Packet Assembly/Encapsulation

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• Disassembly/Decapsulation process in the OSI model

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 The IEEE 802.x Standard
• The bottom two layers of the OSI reference model
pertain to hardware: the NIC and the network cabling.
• The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
has developed enhancements specific to different NICs
and cabling.
• Collectively, these refinements are known as the 802
project.
• The 802 specifications set standards for:
- Network interface cards (NICs).
- Wide area network (WAN) components.
- Components used to create twisted-pair and
coaxial cable networks. 41
 Enhancements to the OSI Reference Model

 The 802 standards committee divided the data-link layer into two
sub layers:
• Logical Link Control (LLC) Establishing and terminating links,
controlling frame traffic, sequencing frames, and acknowledging
frames
• Media Access Control (MAC) Managing media access, delimiting
frames, checking frame errors, and recognizing frame addresses.

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 Logical Link Control (LLC) Sublayer
• The LLC sub layer manages:
- data-link communication and
- defines the use of logical interface points called
service access points (SAP).
• Other computers can refer to and use SAPs to transfer
information from the LLC sub layer to the upper OSI
layers.
 Media Access Control (MAC) Sub layer
• The MAC sub layer is the lower of the two sub layers.
• It provides shared access to the physical layer for the
computers' NICs.
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• It communicates directly with the NIC.
• It is responsible for delivering error-free data between
two computers on the network.

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Presentation and session with CORBA

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 TCP/IP Layer
• It is known as Internet Protocol Suite.
• Developed by DARPA (Defense Advance Research
Projects Agency).
– To interconnect various Defense Department
computer networks.
• The five layers of TCP/IP (top to bottom) which govern
today’s means of communication are:-
• Application Layer:- a layer which consists of applications
and processes that use the network.
• Host-to-Host or Transport Layer:- a layer which is
responsible for end-to-end reliable data transfer.

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• Internet Layer:- this layer defines datagram and handles
routing of data across multiple networks.
• Network Access Layer:- consists of routines for
accessing the physical network

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 Network Access Layer
• Corresponds to the physical and data-link layers of the OSI
reference model.
• It provides the interface between the network architecture
(such as token ring, Ethernet) and the Internet layer.
• Classification of LAN development standards
– Ethernet (CSMA/CD)
– Token Ring
 Ethernet
• The most commonly used medium access control.
• Employees CSMA/CD technology
• Specified in standard IEEE 802.3

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 IEEE 802 has developed a number of LAN standards
– The standard specifies a medium access control method,
multiple transmission media and data rate options
– Notation developed by IEEE 802 committee is
 <data rate in Mbps><signaling method><max. segment length
in hundreds of meters>
 eg. IEEE 802.3 10Mbps
• 10BASE5 coaxial cable (50ohm) Baseband signaling and max.
500m length
• 10BASE2 coaxial cable(50ohm) Baseband signaling and max
200m length.
• 10BASE-T Twisted pair, 100m length.
• 10BASE-F Fiber 500m.
• Fast Ethernet 100Mbps
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 Internet Layer
• The Internet layer, corresponding to the network layer
of the OSI reference model.
• Uses several protocols for routing and delivering
packets.
A) Internet Protocol (IP)
• Is a packet-switched protocol that performs addressing
and route selection.
• IP is a connectionless protocol.
• It sends packets without expecting the receiving host to
acknowledge receipt.
• IP is responsible for packet assembly and disassembly.
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 Some of IP header in formations:
• source and a destination address,
• protocol identifier,
• checksum (a calculated value),
• TTL ("time to live").
B) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
• Before an IP packet can be forwarded to another host,
the hardware address of the receiving machine must be
known.
• The ARP determines hardware address (MAC addresses)
that corresponds to an IP address.
• If ARP does not contain the address in its own cache, it
broadcasts a request for the address.
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  Transport layer

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

Provides reliable, in-sequence delivery of a full-duplex
stream of octets.
• Connection-oriented means that a connection must be
established before hosts can exchange data.
• Reliability is achieved by assigning a sequence number
to each segment transmitted.

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 The main characteristics and mechanisms of TCP are discussed as
follows: -
 Connection setup

Sender’s Reciever’s
event netw ork event
messages
Send SYN seq=x

Recieve SYN seq=x

Send SYN seq=y,

Recieve ACK ack x+1
SYN+ACK seq=y
Send ACK
ack=y+1

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 Flow and congestion control
• The sending rate of a TCP connection is regulated by
two distinct mechanisms, the flow control and the
congestion control.
 Flow control is implemented to avoid that a TCP sender
don’t overflows the receiver’s buffer.
• Thus, the receiver advertises in every ACK transmitted a
window limit to the sender (AWND).
• AWND changes over time depending on :
– the traffic conditions and
– the application speed in reading the receiver’s buffer.

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 Congestion control is concerned with the traffic inside
the network.
 Its purpose is to prevent collapse inside the network
when the traffic source (sender) is faster than the
network in forwarding data.
 TCP sender also uses a limiting window called congestion
window (CWND).
 Connection control
• The sending window size of the sender, W, is taken as
being the minimum of the AWND and the CWND.

W = min (CWND, AWND),

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 TCP connection management
 Currently TCP’s connection management has four
phases: slow start, congestion avoidance, fast
retransmit and fast recovery.
 Slow start: The sender starts by transmitting one
segment and waiting for its ACK.
• Afterwards, CWND is doubled each time an ACK is
received.
 Congestion avoidance: At some point during
the connection, a bottleneck in the network might be
occurred and will start discarding packets.
• Only one packet will be sent.
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 TCP responds in different ways when congestion is
detected in the network either by: -
– Retransmission Time Out (RTO).
– Three duplicate ACKs.

TCP retransmission timeout (RTO)

• When the acknowledgment of the data segments are not
received and the RTO expires, TCP retransmits the
segments,
• and enters back to slow start phase.

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 TCP Duplicate acknowledgment

 When TCP sender receives three duplicate

acknowledgments for the lost packet from the TCP
receiver, the TCP algorithm at the sender side responds
in the following ways: -
 Fast Retransmit:
• means that a packet was lost, but other packets have
already reached at the receiver side.
• In this case, TCP sender will retransmit the lost packets
without waiting for the expiration of RTO.
 Fast Recovery: After fast retransmission, TCP
sender performs fast recovery.(i.e enter into congestion
avoidance phase.)
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 Congestion avoidance

threshold

16

Congestion threshold
Window size

8 Slow start

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Transmission Number

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TCP header

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