Chapter 3

Data and Signals

Note

To be transmitted, data must be

transformed to electromagnetic signals.
3-1 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

• Data can be analog or digital.

• The term analog data refers to information that is
continuous.
• Analog data take on continuous values
• Digital data refers to information that has discrete
states.
• Digital data take on discrete values.
Topics discussed in this section:
 Analog and Digital Data
 Analog and Digital Signals
 Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals
 Analog and Digital Data
 Data can be analog or digital.
 Analog data are continuous and take continuous values.
 For example, an analog clock that has hour, minute, and
second hands gives information in a continuous form;
the movements of the hands are continuous
 Digital data have discrete states and take discrete values.
 A digital clock that reports the hours and the minutes
will change suddenly from 8:05 to 8:06.
 Digital data take on discrete values. For example, data
are stored in computer memory in the form of Os and 1s.
They can be converted to a digital signal or modulated
into an analog signal for transmission across a medium
 Analog and Digital Signals
• Signals can be analog or digital.
• Analog signals can have an infinite number of
values in a range.
• Capture subtle nature(continuously varied)
• Disadvantages:
• Loose energy after certain distance(Repeaters
requries),Noise,
• Can’t be copied perfectly.
 Digital signals can have only a limited
number of values.
 Fast communication, Perfect Copy(millions of
same original)
 High speed and Quality
 Less prone to error(Accurate and reliable)
 Disadvantages:
 Absorbers and regenerators are required.
 Can’t be amlify.
 Signals get distorted slightly at longer distances
Figure 3.1 Comparison of analog and digital signals
3-2 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

• In data communications, we commonly use periodic

analog signals and nonperiodic digital signals.

• A periodic signal completes a pattern within a

measurable time frame, called a period, and repeats
that pattern over subsequent identical periods.

• The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle.

• A nonperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a

pattern or cycle that repeats over time.
•
Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or

composite.
•
A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be

decomposed into simpler signals.

•
A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple

sine waves.
Figure 3.2 A sine wave

The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal. When we

visualize it as a simple oscillating curve, its change over the course of a cycle is smooth and

consistent, a continuous, rolling flow.

A sine wave can be represented by three parameters: the peak amplitude, the frequency,

and the phase.

Peak Amplitude

•The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest

intensity, proportional to the energy it carries.
•For electric signals, peak amplitude is normally measured in volts.
•Figure 3.3 shows two signals and their peak amplitudes.

•The voltage of battery is a constant; this constant value can be

considered a sine wave, For example, the peak value of an AA battery

Figure 3.3 Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
but different amplitudes
Period and Frequency

•Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to

complete 1 cycle.

•Frequency refers to the number of periods in 1 s.

Period is the inverse of frequency, and frequency is the inverse of

Note

Frequency and period are the inverse of

each other.
Figure 3.4 Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies
Table 3.1 Units of period and frequency
 Example 3.1

The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz.

The period of this sine wave can be determined as
follows:
 Example 3.2

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in

kilohertz?

Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we
calculate the frequency from the period (1 Hz = 10 −3
kHz).
 Frequency
• Frequency is the rate of change with respect
to time.
• Change in a short span of time means high
frequency.
• Change over a long span of time means
low frequency.
Note

 If a signal does not change at all, its

frequency is zero.

 If a signal changes instantaneously, its

frequency is infinite.
Phase

•Phase describes the position of the waveform

relative to time 0.

•If we think of the wave as something that can be

shifted backward or forward along the time axis,
 Note
Phase describes the position of the
waveform relative to time 0.
•
Phase is measured in degrees or radians [360° is 2n rad; 1°

is 2n/360 rad, and 1 rad is 360/(2n)].

•
A phase shift of 360° corresponds to a shift of a complete

period;
•
A phase shift of 180° corresponds to a shift of one-half of a
Figure 3.5 Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases

I. A sine wave with a phase of 0° starts at time 0

with a zero amplitude. The

amplitude is increasing.

2. A sine wave with a phase of 90° starts at time 0

with a peak amplitude. The

amplitude is decreasing.

3. A sine wave with a phase of 180° starts at time

0 with a zero amplitude. The

 Example 3.3

A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0.

What is its phase in degrees and radians?

Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6
cycle is
Wavelength
•Wavelength is another characteristic of a signal traveling

through a transmission medium.

•Wavelength binds the period or the frequency of a simple sine
wave to the propagation speed of the medium (see Figure 3.6).
•The frequency of a signal is independent of the medium, the
wavelength depends on both the frequency and the medium.
•In data communications, we use wavelength to describe the

transmission of light in an optical fiber.

• Wavelength can be calculated if one is given the propagation speed (the speed

of light) and the period of the signal.

• Period and frequency are related to each other, if we represent wavelength by

λ, propagation speed by s (speed of light), and frequency by f, we get

•
The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends on the medium and on

frequency of the signal.

Figure 3.6 Wavelength and period
Time and Frequency Domains
•A sine wave is comprehensively defined by its amplitude,

frequency, and phase.

•Sine wave is called a time-domain plot.

•The time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with

respect to time (it is an amplitude-versus-time plot). Phase is not

explicitly shown on a time-domain plot.

Figure 3.7 The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave
Note

A complete sine wave in the time

domain can be represented by one
single spike in the frequency domain.
 Example 3.7

The frequency domain is more compact and

useful when we are dealing with more than one
sine wave.
For example, Figure 3.8 shows three sine waves,
each with different amplitude and frequency. All
can be represented by three spikes in the
frequency domain.
Figure 3.8 The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves
Signals and Communication
 A single-frequency sine wave is not useful
in data communications.
 We need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine waves.
 According to Fourier analysis, any
composite signal is a combination of simple
sine waves with different frequencies,
amplitudes and phases.
Composite Signals and Periodicity
 If the composite signal is periodic, the
decomposition gives a series of signals
with discrete frequencies.
 If the composite signal is nonperiodic, the
decomposition gives a combination of
sine waves with continuous frequencies.
 In the early 1900s, the French mathematician
Jean-Baptiste Fourier showed that any
composite signal is actually a combination of
simple sine waves with different frequencies,
amplitudes, and phases.
 Example 3.4

A composite signal can be periodic or nonperiodic.

A periodic composite signal can be decomposed into a

series of simple sine waves with discrete frequencies that

have integer values (1, 2, 3, and so on).
A nonperiodic composite signal can be decomposed into

a combination of an infinite number of simple sine

waves with continuous frequencies, frequencies that
have real values.
Figure 3.9 shows a periodic composite signal with frequency f. This type of
signal is not typical of those found in data communications. We can consider it
to be three alarm systems, each with a different frequency. The analysis of this
signal can give us a good understanding of how to decompose signals.
Figure 3.9 A composite periodic signal
Figure 3.10 Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and
frequency domains
 Example 3.5
Figure 3.11 shows a nonperiodic composite signal.
 It can be the signal created by a microphone or a telephone set

when a word or two is pronounced.

The composite signal cannot be periodic, because it implies that

we are repeating the same word or words with exactly the same
tone.
In a time-domain representation of this composite signal, there

are an infinite number of simple sine frequencies.

The number of frequencies in a human voice is infinite, the

range is limited. A normal human being can create a continuous

range of frequencies between 0 and 4 kHz.
Frequency decomposition of the signal yields a continuous

curve.
There are an infinite number of frequencies between 0.0 and

4000.0 (real values).

Figure 3.11 The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal
Bandwidth and Signal Frequency
 The bandwidth of a composite signal is the
difference between the highest and the lowest
frequencies contained in that signal.
 For example, if a composite signal contains
frequencies between 1000 and 5000, its
bandwidth is 5000 - 1000, or 4000.
Figure 3.12 The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals
 Example 3.6

If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves

with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what
is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all
components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 Hz (see Figure 3.13).
Figure 3.13 The bandwidth for Example 3.6
 Example 3.7

A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest

frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw
the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the
same amplitude.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum contains all integer frequencies. We show

this by a series of spikes (see Figure 3.14).
Figure 3.14 The bandwidth for Example 3.7
 Example 3.8

A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200

kHz, with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak
amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have an
amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the
signal.

Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest
at 240 kHz. Figure 3.15 shows the frequency domain
and the bandwidth.
Figure 3.15 The bandwidth for Example 3.8
Data and Signals
3-3 DIGITAL SIGNALS

• Digital signals can have only a limited number of values.

• Fast communication, Perfect Copy(millions of same original)
• High speed and Quality
• Less prone to error(Accurate and reliable)
• For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0
as zero voltage. A digital signal can have more than two
levels. In this case, we can send more than 1 bit for each level.

Topics discussed in this section:

 Bit Rate
 Bit Length
 Digital Signal as a Composite Analog Signal
 Application Layer
Figure 3.16 Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other
with four signal levels
 We send 1 bit per level in part a of
the figure and 2 bits per level in part
b of the figure.
 In general, if a signal has L levels,
each level needs log2L bits.
 Example 3.16

A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are

needed per level? We calculate the number of bits from
the formula

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

 Example 3.17

A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are

needed per level? We calculate the number of bits by
using the formula. Each signal level is represented by
3.17 bits. However, this answer is not realistic. The
number of bits sent per level needs to be an integer as
well as a power of 2. For this example, 4 bits can
represent one level.
Bit Rate
•Most digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus period and
frequency are not appropriate characteristics.
•Another term- bit rate (instead of frequency)-is used to

describe digital signals.

•The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits
per second (bps).
•Figure 3.16 shows the bit rate for two signals.
 Example 3.18

Assume we need to download text documents at the rate

of 100 pages per sec. What is the required bit rate of the
channel?
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in
each line. If we assume that one character requires 8
bits (ascii), the bit rate is
 Example 3.19

A digitized voice channel, as we will see in Chapter 4, is

made by digitizing a 4-kHz bandwidth analog voice
signal. We need to sample the signal at twice the highest
frequency (two samples per hertz). We assume that each
sample requires 8 bits. What is the required bit rate?

Solution
The bit rate can be calculated as
 Example 3.20

What is the bit rate for high-definition TV (HDTV)?

Solution
HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high quality
video signals. The HDTV screen is normally a ratio of
16 : 9. There are 1920 by 1080 pixels per screen, and the
screen is renewed 30 times per second. Twenty-four bits
represents one color pixel.

The TV stations reduce this rate to 20 to 40 Mbps

through compression.
Bit Length

•We use wavelength for an analog signal:

•The distance one cycle occupies on the transmission medium.
•We define digital signal: the bit length.
•The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the
transmission medium.

Bit length =propagation speed * bit duration

Digital Signal as a Composite Analog Signal:
•In Fourier analysis, a digital signal is a composite analog signal.
•A digital signal, in the time domain, comprises connected
vertical and horizontal line segments.
•A vertical line in the time domain means a frequency of infinity
(sudden change in time); a horizontal line in the time domain

means a frequency of zero (no change in time).

•Going from a frequency of zero to a frequency of infinity (and
vice versa) implies all frequencies in between are part of the
• Fourier analysis can be used to decompose a digital signal. If the

digital signal is periodic, which is rare in data communications,

the decomposed signal has a frequency domain representation

with an infinite bandwidth and discrete frequencies.

• If the digital signal is nonperiodic, the decomposed signal still

has an infinite bandwidth, but the frequencies are continuous.

• Figure 3.17 shows a periodic and a nonperiodic digital signal

and their bandwidths.

Figure 3.17 The time and frequency domains of periodic and nonperiodic
digital signals

Note that both bandwidths are infinite, but the periodic signal has discrete frequencies while

the nonperiodic signal has continuous frequencies.

Transmission of Digital Signals
•We can transmit a digital signal by using one of two
different approaches:
•Baseband transmission
•Broadband transmission (using modulation)
Figure 3.18 Baseband transmission

Baseband transmission means sending a digital signal over a

channel without changing the digital signal to an analog signal.

Figure 3.18 shows baseband transmission.

Note
A digital signal is a composite analog
signal with an infinite bandwidth.

• In Baseband transmission we have a low-pass channel, a channel

with a bandwidth that starts from zero.

• This is the case if we have a dedicated medium with a bandwidth

constituting only one channel.

• For example, the entire bandwidth of a cable connecting two

computers is one single channel.

• As another example, we may connect several computers to a bus, but
Figure 3.19 Bandwidths of two low-pass channels

Two low-pass channels: one with a narrow bandwidth and the other with a wide bandwidth. We

need to remember that a low-pass channel with infinite bandwidth is ideal, but we cannot have such

a channel in real life.

Case 1: Low-Pass Channel with Wide Bandwidth
•If we want to preserve the exact form of a nonperiodic digital signal with
vertical segments vertical and horizontal segments horizontal, we need to send the

entire spectrum, the continuous range of frequencies between zero and infinity.

This is possible if we have a dedicated medium with an infinite bandwidth

between the sender and receiver that preserves the exact amplitude of each

component of the composite signal.

•Although this may be possible inside a computer (e.g., between CPU and

memory), it is not possible between two devices. Fortunately, the amplitudes of

the frequencies at the border of the bandwidth are so small that they can be

ignored.
Figure 3.20 Baseband transmission using a dedicated medium
Note

Baseband transmission of a digital signal

that preserves the shape of the digital
signal is possible only if we have a low-
pass channel with an infinite or very wide
bandwidth.
 Example 3.21

• An example of a dedicated channel where the entire

bandwidth of the medium is used as one single
channel is a LAN. Almost every wired LAN today
uses a dedicated channel for two stations
communicating with each other.
• In a bus topology LAN with multipoint connections,
only two stations can communicate with each other at
each moment in time (timesharing); the other stations
need to refrain from sending data.
• In a star topology LAN, the entire channel between
each station and the hub is used for communication
between these two entities.
Case 2: Low-Pass Channel with Limited Bandwidth
•In a low-pass channel with limited bandwidth, we approximate
the digital signal with an analog signal. The level of

approximation depends on the bandwidth available.

•Rough Approximation Let us assume that we have a digital

signal of bit rate N. If we want to send analog signals to roughly

simulate this signal, we need to consider the worst case, a

maximum number of changes in the digital signal. This happens

when the signal carries the sequence 01010101 ... or the sequence
Figure 3.21 Rough approximation of a digital signal using the first harmonic
for worst case
Better Approximation
•To make the shape of the analog signal look more like that
of a digital signal, we need to add more harmonics of the

frequencies.
•We need to increase the bandwidth. We can increase the
bandwidth to 3N/2, 5N/2, 7N/2, and so on.
•Figure 3.22 shows the effect of this increase for one of the
worst cases, the pattern 010.
Figure 3.22 Simulating a digital signal with first three harmonics
Note

In baseband transmission, the required

In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is proportional to

bandwidth is proportional the bit rate; to the bit rate;

if we
if weneed to send
need to send bits
bits faster, faster,
we need we need
more bandwidth.

more bandwidth.
Table 3.2 Bandwidth requirements
 Example 3.22

What is the required bandwidth of a low-pass channel if

we need to send 1 Mbps by using baseband transmission?

Solution
The answer depends on the accuracy desired.
a. The minimum bandwidth, is B = bit rate /2, or 500 kHz.

b. A better solution is to use the first and the third

harmonics with B = 3 × 500 kHz = 1.5 MHz.

c. Still a better solution is to use the first, third, and fifth

harmonics with B = 5 × 500 kHz = 2.5 MHz.
 Example 3.22

We have a low-pass channel with bandwidth 100 kHz.

What is the maximum bit rate of this channel?

Solution
The maximum bit rate can be achieved if we use the
first harmonic.
minimum bandwidth, is B = bit rate /2
The bit rate is 2 times the available bandwidth, or 200
kbps.
Broadband Transmission (Using Modulation)

•Broadband transmission or modulation means changing

the digital signal to an analog signal for transmission.
•Modulation allows us to use a bandpass channel- a

channel with a bandwidth that does not start from zero.

•This type of channel is more available than a low-pass
channel. Figure 3.23 shows a bandpass channel.
Figure 3.23 Bandwidth of a bandpass channel
• A digital signal is converted to a composite analog signal.

We have used a single-frequency analog signal (called a

carrier); the amplitude of the carrier has been changed to

look like the digital signal.

• The result, however, is not a single-frequency signal; it is a

composite signal. At the receiver, the received analog

signal is converted to digital, and the result is a replica of

what has been sent.

Note

If the available channel is a bandpass

channel, we cannot send the digital
signal directly to the channel;
we need to convert the digital signal to
an analog signal before transmission.
Figure 3.24 Modulation of a digital signal for transmission on a bandpass
channel
 Example 3.24

An example of broadband transmission using

modulation is the sending of computer data through a
telephone subscriber line, the line connecting a resident
to the central telephone office. These lines are designed
to carry voice with a limited bandwidth. The channel is
considered a bandpass channel. We convert the digital
signal from the computer to an analog signal, and send
the analog signal. We can install two converters to
change the digital signal to analog and vice versa at the
receiving end.
 Example 3.25

A second example is the digital cellular telephone. For

better reception, digital cellular phones convert the
analog voice signal to a digital signal. Although the
bandwidth allocated to a company providing digital
cellular phone service is very wide, we still cannot send
the digital signal without conversion. The reason is that
we only have a bandpass channel available between
caller and callee. We need to convert the digitized voice
to a composite analog signal before sending.
3-4 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

• Signals travel through transmission media, which are

not perfect.
• The imperfection causes signal impairment. This
means that the signal at the beginning of the medium
is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium .
• What is sent is not what is received. Three causes of
impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

Topics discussed in this section:

 Attenuation
 Distortion
 Noise
Figure 3.25 Causes of impairment
Attenuation
 Means loss of energy -> weaker signal
 When a signal travels through a medium it loses
energy overcoming the resistance of the medium
 Amplifiers are used to compensate for this loss of
energy by amplifying the signal.
 Eg. Some of the electrical energy in the signal is
converted to heat. To compensate for this loss,
amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.
 Measurement of
Attenuation
 To show the loss or gain of energy the unit “decibel”
is used.

dB = 10log10P2 /P1
P1 - input signal
P2 - output signal
Figure 3.26 Attenuation
 Example 3.26

Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium

and its power is reduced to one-half. This means that P 2
is (1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power)
can be calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half

the power.
 Example 3.27

A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is

increased 10 times. This means that P2 = 10P1 . In this
case, the amplification (gain of power) can be calculated
as
 Example 3.28

One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the

changes in the strength of a signal is that decibel
numbers can be added (or subtracted) when we are
measuring several points (cascading) instead of just two.
In Figure 3.27 a signal travels from point 1 to point 4. In
this case, the decibel value can be calculated as
Figure 3.27 Decibels for Example 3.28
 Example 3.29

Sometimes the decibel is used to measure signal power

in milliwatts. In this case, it is referred to as dBm and is
calculated as dBm = 10 log10 Pm , where Pm is the power
in milliwatts. Calculate the power of a signal with dB m =
−30.

Solution
We can calculate the power in the signal as
 Example 3.30

The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per

kilometer (dB/km). If the signal at the beginning of a
cable with −0.3 dB/km has a power of 2 mW, what is the
power of the signal at 5 km?
Solution
The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 × (−0.3) = −1.5 dB.
We can calculate the power as
Distortion
 Means that the signal changes its form or shape
 Distortion occurs in composite signals
 Each frequency component has its own
propagation speed traveling through a medium.
 The different components therefore arrive with
different delays at the receiver.
 That means that the signals have different
phases at the receiver than they did at the source.
Figure 3.28 Distortion
 Noise
 There are different types of noise
 Thermal - random noise of electrons in the wire
creates an extra signal
 Induced - from motors and appliances, devices
act are transmitter antenna and medium as
receiving antenna.
 Crosstalk - same as above but between two
wires.
 Impulse - Spikes that result from power lines,
lightning etc.
Figure 3.29 Noise
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
 To measure the quality of a system the
SNR is often used. It indicates the strength
of the signal wrt the noise power in the
system.
 It is the ratio between two powers.
 It is usually given in dB and referred to as
SNRdB.
 SNR =average signal power/average noise power
 Example 3.31

NR is actually the ratio of what is wanted (signal) to what is not wanted

(noise).

A high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise; a low SNR means
The
the power
signal isofmore
a signal is 10
corrupted mW and the power of the noise is 1
by noise.
μW; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?
Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows:
 Example 3.32

The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel

are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

Figure 3.30 Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR
3-5 DATA RATE LIMITS

A very important consideration in data communications

is how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a
channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Topics discussed in this section:

 Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
 Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
 Using Both Limits
Note

Increasing the levels of a signal

increases the probability of an error
occurring, in other words it reduces the
reliability of the system. Why??
Capacity of a System
 The bit rate of a system increases with an
increase in the number of signal levels we use to
denote a symbol.
 A symbol can consist of a single bit or “n” bits.
 The number of signal levels = 2n.
 As the number of levels goes up, the spacing
between level decreases -> increasing the
probability of an error occurring in the presence
of transmission impairments.
Nyquist Theorem
 Nyquist gives the upper bound for the bit rate of
a transmission system by calculating the bit rate
directly from the number of bits in a symbol (or
signal levels) and the bandwidth of the system
(assuming 2 symbols/per cycle and first
harmonic).
 Nyquist theorem states that for a noiseless
channel:
C = 2 B log22n
C= capacity in bps
B = bandwidth in Hz
 Example 3.33

Does the Nyquist theorem bit rate agree with the

intuitive bit rate described in baseband transmission?

Solution
They match when we have only two levels. We said, in
baseband transmission, the bit rate is 2 times the
bandwidth if we use only the first harmonic in the worst
case. However, the Nyquist formula is more general than
what we derived intuitively; it can be applied to baseband
transmission and modulation. Also, it can be applied
when we have two or more levels of signals.
 Example 3.34

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000

Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as
 Example 3.35

Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a

signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2
bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as
 Example 3.36

We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with

a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we
need?
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either

increase the number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we
have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64
levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.
Shannon’s Theorem
 Shannon’s theorem gives the
capacity of a system in the
presence of noise.

C = B log2(1 + SNR)
 Example 3.37

Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value

of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other
words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For
this channel the capacity C is calculated as

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero

regardless of the bandwidth. In other words, we cannot
receive any data through this channel.
 Example 3.38

We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a

regular telephone line. A telephone line normally has a
bandwidth of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually
3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line
is 34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster than this,
we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or
improve the signal-to-noise ratio.
 Example 3.39

The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels.

Assume that SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2
MHz. The theoretical channel capacity can be calculated
as
 Example 3.40

For practical purposes, when the SNR is very high, we

can assume that SNR + 1 is almost the same as SNR. In
these cases, the theoretical channel capacity can be
simplified to

For example, we can calculate the theoretical capacity of

the previous example as
 Example 3.41

We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR

for this channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate
and signal level?

Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper
limit.
 Example 3.41 (continued)

The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit.

For better performance we choose something lower, 4
Mbps, for example. Then we use the Nyquist formula to
find the number of signal levels.
Note

The Shannon capacity gives us the

upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells us
how many signal levels we need.
 3-6 PERFORMANCE

• One important issue in networking is the performance

of the network—how good is it?

Topics discussed in this section:

 Bandwidth - capacity of the system
 Throughput - no. of bits that can bepushed through
 Latency (Delay) - delay incurred by a bit from start to finish
 Bandwidth-Delay Product
 Note

In networking, we use the term bandwidth in two

contexts.
 The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of
frequencies in a composite signal or the range of
frequencies that a channel can pass.

 The second, bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the

speed of bit transmission in a channel or link. Often
referred to as Capacity.

Basically, an increase in bandwidth in hertz means an

increase in bandwidth in bits per second
 Example 3.42

The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice or

data. The bandwidth of this line for data transmission
can be up to 56,000 bps using a sophisticated modem to
change the digital signal to analog.
 Example 3.44

A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an

average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the
throughput of this network?

Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in

this case.
Throughput
•The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a
network.
•Bandwidth in bits per second and throughput seem the same, they are different.
•A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps through this
link with T always less than B.
•Bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link; the throughput is an actual
measurement of how fast we can send data.
•For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the devices
connected to the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps. This means that we

cannot send more than 200 kbps through this link.

•Imagine a highway designed to transmit 1000 cars per minute from one point to
Latency (Delay)
•The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to
completely arrive at the destination from the time the first bit is sent out

from the source.

•We can say that latency is made of four components: propagation time,
transmission time, queuing time and processing delay

Latency =propagation time +transmission time + queuing time +

processing delay
Propagation Time
•Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to travel from the
source to the destination.
•The propagation time is calculated by dividing the distance by the

propagation speed.

Propagation time = Distance / Propagation speed

•The propagation speed of electromagnetic signals depends on the medium

and on the frequency of the signal.
Transmission Time
•In data communications we don't send just 1 bit, we send a message.
•The first bit may take a time equal to the propagation time to reach its
destination; the last bit also may take the same amount of time.
•However, there is a time between the first bit leaving the sender and

the last bit arriving at the receiver.

•The first bit leaves earlier and arrives earlier; the last bit leaves later
and arrives later.
•The time required for transmission of a message depends on the size of
the message and the bandwidth of the channel.
Propagation and Transmission Delay

 Propagation Delay = Distance/Propagation speed

 Transmission Delay = Message size/bandwidth bps

 Latency = Propagation delay + Transmission delay +

Queueing time + Processing time
 Example 3.45

What is the propagation time if the distance between the

two points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed
to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as

The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic

Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct cable between the
source and the destination.
 Example 3.46

What are the propagation time and the transmission

time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-mail) if the
bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the
distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000
km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission time
as shown on the next slide:
 Example 3.46 (continued)

Note that in this case, because the message is short and

the bandwidth is high, the dominant factor is the
propagation time, not the transmission time. The
transmission time can be ignored.
 Example 3.47

What are the propagation time and the transmission

time for a 5-Mbyte message (an image) if the bandwidth
of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance
between the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and
that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission
times as shown on the next slide.
 Example 3.47 (continued)

Note that in this case, because the message is very long

and the bandwidth is not very high, the dominant factor
is the transmission time, not the propagation time. The
propagation time can be ignored.
Queuing Time

•The third component in latency is the queuing time, the time needed
for each intermediate or end device to hold the message before it can

be processed.
•The queuing time is not a fixed factor; it changes with the load
imposed on the network.
•When there is heavy traffic on the network, the queuing time
Bandwidth-Delay Product

•Bandwidth and delay are two performance metrics of a link.

Figure 3.31 Filling the link with bits for case 1
 Example 3.48

We can think about the link between two points as a

pipe. The cross section of the pipe represents the
bandwidth, and the length of the pipe represents the
delay. We can say the volume of the pipe defines the
bandwidth-delay product, as shown in Figure 3.33.
Figure 3.32 Filling the link with bits in case 2
Note

The bandwidth-delay product defines

the number of bits that can fill the link.
Figure 3.33 Concept of bandwidth-delay product
Jitter
•Another performance issue that is related to delay is jitter.

•We can roughly say that jitter is a problem if different packets of

data encounter different delays and the application using the data at

the receiver site is time-sensitive (audio and video data, for example).

•If the delay for the first packet is 20 ms, for the second is 45 ms, and
for the third is 40 ms, then the real-time application that uses the