Circulatory system

Lecture-16, 17

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 The circulatory system

• The circulatory system is a network consisting of blood, blood vessels, and the heart.
This network supplies tissues in the body with oxygen and other nutrients, transports
hormones, and removes unnecessary waste products.
• The human circulatory system consists of a network of arteries, veins, and capillaries,
with the heart pumping blood through it. Its primary role is to provide essential
nutrients, minerals, and hormones to various parts of the body. Alternatively,
the circulatory system is also responsible for collecting metabolic waste and toxins from
the cells and tissues to be purified or expelled from the body.

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 Features of Circulatory System

• The crucial features of the human circulatory system are as follows:

 The human circulatory system consists of blood, heart, blood vessels, and lymph.
 The human circulatory system circulates blood through two loops (double circulation) – One
for oxygenated blood, another for deoxygenated blood.
 The human heart consists of four chambers – two ventricles and two auricles.
 The human circulatory system possesses a body-wide network of blood vessels. These
comprise arteries, veins, and capillaries.
 The primary function of blood vessels is to transport oxygenated blood and nutrients to all
parts of the body. It is also tasked with collecting metabolic wastes to be expelled from the
body.
 Most circulatory system diagrams do not visually represent its sheer length. Theoretically, if the
veins, arteries, and capillaries of a human were laid out, end to end, it would span a total
distance of 1,00,000 kilometres (or roughly eight times the diameter of the Earth).

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4
 The circulatory system

1. Increases the flow of blood to meet increased energy demands during exercise and
regulates body temperature.
2. When foreign substances or organisms ( microorganisms that causes diseases :
pathogens) invade the body, the circulatory system swiftly transports disease-fighting
elements of the immune system, such as white blood cells and antibodies, to regions
under attack.
3. In the case of injury or bleeding, the circulatory system sends clotting cells and proteins to
the affected site, which quickly stop bleeding and promote healing.

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 The parts of the circulatory system

The circulatory system consists of the

 heart, a muscular organ that pumps blood throughout your body. The heart is the pump that keeps this transport system
moving.

 Blood: As most of the cells in the human body are not in direct contact with the external environment, the
circulatory system acts as a transport system for these cells. Two distinct fluids move through the circulatory
system: blood and lymph. Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the body's cells, and carries waste materials away.
Blood also carries hormones, which control body processes, and antibodies, to fight invading germs.
 blood vessels, which include your arteries, veins and capillaries: There are two major types of blood vessels –
those that bring blood towards the heart are called veins and those that carry blood from the heart towards
other tissues and organs are called arteries. Arteries and veins undergo repeated branching to produce arterioles
and venules. The thinnest blood vessels are capillaries, made of a single layer of squamous epithelial cells. These
thin tubular structures are the primary site for the exchange of materials between the circulatory system and
tissues.
 lymph, and lymphatic vessels: The lymphatic system (lymph, lymph nodes and lymph vessels) supports the
circulatory system by draining excess fluids and proteins from tissues back into the bloodstream, thereby
preventing tissue swelling. It also serves as a defense system for the body, filtering out organisms that cause
disease, producing white blood cells, and generating antibodies. 6
 Vital Parts of Circulatory System

Lymph tissue
Artery
A Pump: Heart

Vein

Fluid Tissue: Blood and Lymph

A Network of tubing: Vein & Artery
Specialized Tubing: Capillaries 7
 Heart
• The heart provides the pressure needed to keep the blood
flowing through the network of tubing.
• The heart is the engine of the circulatory system.
• Location: center in the thoracic cavity
• The heart is a three-layered, Four-Chambered, two-Cycle
Organ
• The heart is a large muscular pump and is divided into two
halves - the right-hand side and the left-hand side.
• The right-hand side of the heart is responsible for pumping
deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
• The left-hand side pumps oxygenated blood around the
body.
• Each side of the heart consists of an atrium and
a ventricle which are two connected chambers.
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 Heart

• The heart provides the pressure needed to keep the blood flowing through the network of
tubing.
• The heart is the engine of the circulatory system.
• Location: center in the thoracic cavity
• The heart is a three-layered, Four-Chambered, two-Cycle Organ
Contains four chambers
1. the right atrium
2. the left atrium
3. the right ventricle
4. the left ventricle
2 Atria: small & thin walled
2 ventricles: Muscular walled

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 Heart

• The walls of the ventricles are much thicker than the walls of the atria because the ventricles need
to develop much more force when they contract. Their contraction has to push the blood out of the
heart and around the body. For the right ventricle, the force produced must be relatively small,
because the blood goes only to the lungs, which are very close to the heart. If too high a pressure
was developed, tissue fluid would accumulate in the lungs, hampering gas exchange.
• The left ventricle, however, has to develop sufficient force to supply blood to all the rest of the body
organs.
• Arterioles play an important role in reducing this pressure before blood flows into the capillaries.
However, during vigorous exercise, when muscles are working hard, the arterioles supplying blood to
them dilate, increasing blood flow to them.
• The left ventricle must be able to develop enough force to ensure that there is still sufficient blood
reaching other organs, especially the brain. Kidneys require high-pressure blood all the time, to carry
out ultrafiltration. Therefore, the thickness of the muscular wall of the left ventricle is much greater
than that of the right.

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 Heart

• The walls of these chambers are made of a special muscle called MYOCARDIUM, which contracts
continuously and rhythmically to pump blood.
• The pumping action of the heart occurs in two stages for each heartbeat:
(1) DIASTOLE, when the heart is at rest; and
(2) SYSTOLE, when the heart contracts to pump deoxygenated blood toward the lungs and
oxygenated blood to the body.
• During each heartbeat, typically about 60 to 90 ml of blood are pumped out of the heart. If the
heart stops pumping, death usually occurs within four to five minutes.

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 Heart

Blood vessels leading into and out of the heart

There are four main blood vessels that take blood into and out of the heart.
1. the aorta is the largest artery in the body. It carries oxygenated blood away
from the left ventricle to the body
2. the vena cava is the largest vein in the body. It carries deoxygenated
blood from the body back to the heart
3. the pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood away from the right
ventricle to the lungs
4. the pulmonary vein returns oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart (except for the pulmonary
artery which carries deoxygenated blood away from the right ventricle to the
lungs).
The main artery is the aorta.
• The main vein is the vena cava.
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 Heart

• The atria (plural of atrium) are where the blood collects when it enters the heart.
• The ventricles pump the blood out of the heart to the lungs or around the body.
• The septum separates the right-hand and left-hand side of the heart.
• The tricuspid valve is located between the right atrium and right ventricle and opens
due to a build-up of pressure in the right atrium.
• The bicuspid valve is located between the left atrium and left ventricle and likewise
opens due to a build-up of pressure, this time in the left atrium.
• The semilunar valves stop the back flow of blood into the heart. There is a semilunar
valve where the aorta leaves the left ventricle and another where the pulmonary artery
leaves the right ventricle.

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 Circulatory system: Blood Vessels

Arteries
• Arteries are tubes that carry oxygenated
blood away from the heart.
• Arteries carry blood under the highest
pressure.
• The structure of an artery must be able to
handle both high pressure and the changes
in pressure that result from the rhythmic
pumping of the heart.
• Therefore, arteries are thick-walled. The
arteries have thicker smooth muscle and
connective tissue layers than veins.
• Small arteries are called arterioles.

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 Blood Ve:s
Circulatory system: Blood Vessels

• Veins are tubes that return deoxygenated blood to the heart.

• Veins provide a return system for blood under lower pressure than the blood in the
arteries.
• Therefore, the walls of veins do not need to be as thick as those of arteries.
• Small veins are called venules.
▪ The pressure of the blood coming out of the venous end of some capillaries often is
not high enough to push the blood all the way back to the heart.
▪ For this reason, some veins in the legs and arms have one-way valves to ensure that
the blood travels only toward the heart.

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 Circulatory system: Blood
Difference between ArteryVessels
and Vein

Artery Vein

 Carry oxygenated blood (except pulmonary artery).  Carry deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary vein)

 Carry blood away from the heart  Carry blood to the heart

 Thick muscular wall.  Thin muscular wall.

 Blood under high pressure.  Blood under low pressure.

 Contain no valve  Contain valve

 Blood flows rapidly.  Blood flows smoothly

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 Blood Vessels
Circulatory system: Blood Vessels

Capillaries
• Capillaries connect arteries and veins.
• They are a finely divided network of tiny tubes that exchange food, oxygen and wastes
between blood and body cells.
• Capillaries leak oxygen, nutrients from the bloodstream to all cells in the body.
• Cell wastes diffuse through the capillary back into the blood.

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 The Pathway of Blood Circulation

 Blood returning to the heart from the body has little oxygen left in it.
 As a result, the pathway that the blood follows should put more oxygen into the blood
and then direct the re-oxygenated blood back out to the body tissues.
 Systemic circulation is the movement of blood between the heart and the rest of the
body.
 Pulmonary circulation is the movement of blood between the heart and lungs.

 Each of these circuits requires its own pump.

 The pulmonary circuit uses the right half of the heart;
 The systemic circuit uses the left half of the heart.
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 Pathway of Blood Circulation
Blood Circulation in Heart:

Deoxygenated blood from body

Superior and Inferior Vena cava

heart

Right Atrium

[diastole] Right Ventricle

[systole] Pulmonary Artery (to lungs)

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 Lung Capillaries

Pulmonary Artery to Pulmonary Vein

lungs to lungs

Vena Cava from body Aorta to body

Deoxygenated blood from Oxygenated blood from

body to heart – Superior and lungs to heart –
Inferior Vena cava  Pulmonary vein  left
Right Atrium  [diastole] Atrium  [diastole] Left
Right Ventricle  [systole] Capillaries of body organs Ventricle  [systole] Aorta
Pulmonary Artery (to lungs) apart from the lungs (to body)
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Systemic Circuit & Pulmonary Circuit

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 Deoxygenated
blood (from
body)

Heart

Lungs

Oxygenated
blood (from
lungs)

Heart

Body

• Arteries : heart to body • Veins: Body to heart

• Pulmonary artery: heart to • Pulmonary vein: Lung to
lung heart 23
The cardiac cycle
• The cardiac cycle refers to the pattern of contraction and relaxation of the heart during one complete
heartbeat. Your heart beats around 70 times a minute.
• The period of time that begins with the contraction of the atria and ends with ventricular relaxation is
known as the cardiac cycle. The cardiac cycle lasts approximately 0.8 seconds.
• The period of contraction that the heart undergoes while it pumps blood into circulation is called
systole.
• The period of relaxation that occurs as the chambers fill with blood is called diastole.
• Both the atria and ventricles undergo systole and diastole, and it is essential that these components be
carefully regulated and coordinated to ensure blood is pumped efficiently into the body.
The cardiac cycle has 3 stages:
1. Atrial and Ventricular diastole (chambers are relaxed and filling with blood)
2. Atrial systole (atria contract and the remaining blood is pushed into ventricles)
3. Ventricular systole (ventricles contract and push blood out through the aorta and pulmonary artery)

 One cardiac cycle is followed by another in a continuous process. There is no

gap between cycles where blood stops flowing 24
The cardiac cycle 25
 The cardiac cycle

• Beginning with all chambers in diastole, blood flows passively from the veins into the
atria and past the atrioventricular valves into the ventricles.
• The atria begin to contract (atrial systole), and pump blood into the ventricles. The
blood from the atria does not go back into the pulmonary veins or the venae cavae,
because these have semilunar valves to prevent backflow.
• About 0.1 seconds after the atria contract, the ventricles contract. This is called
ventricular systole.
• The thick, muscular walls of the ventricles squeeze inwards on the blood, increasing its
pressure and pushing it out of the heart. As soon as the pressure in the ventricles
becomes greater than the pressure in the atria, this pressure difference pushes the
atrioventricular valves shut, preventing blood from going back into the atria.

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 The cardiac cycle

• Instead, the blood rushes upwards into the aorta and the pulmonary artery, pushing open
the semilunar valves in these vessels. Ventricular systole lasts for about 0.3 seconds. The
muscle then relaxes, and the stage called ventricular diastole begins.
• As the muscle relaxes, the pressure in the ventricles drops. The high-pressure blood which
has just been pushed into the arteries would flow back into the ventricles but for the
presence of the semilunar valves, which snap shut.
• During diastole, as the whole of the heart muscle relaxes, blood from the veins flows into
the two atria. The blood is at a very low pressure, but the thin walls of the atria are easily
distended. The atrial muscle then contracts, to push blood forcefully down into the
ventricles, and the whole cycle begins again.
• The valves prevent the backflow of blood. Failure of the valves to operate properly
produces turbulent blood flow within the heart; the resulting heart murmur can often be
heard with a stethoscope.
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 Heart

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v=5tUWOF6wEnk
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Cardiac output
• The left and right ventricles each pump the same volume of blood through the aorta and
pulmonary artery.
• The volume of blood pumped through each ventricle per minute can be calculated as cardiac
output.
• Stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped out of each ventricle each time the heart beats
• Heart rate is the number of beats per minute and is the same as your pulse rate.
• Cardiac output can be calculated using the following equation: CO= SV x HR
• Units:
• CO - ml per minute (ml/min) or l per minute (l/min)
• SV - ml or l
• HR - beats per minute (bpm) (beats/min)
• If the heart rate increases, cardiac output increases. Also if stroke volume increases, cardiac output
will increase.
 For example, if the stroke volume at rest is 70 ml and the heart rate is 70 bpm, then the cardiac
output is 70 × 70 ml per minute = 4900 ml/min or 4.9 l/min.
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Heart

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 Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing
against the walls of the arteries. It tells us how
hard the heart is working to pump blood.
 Blood pressure is how powerfully blood travels
through the blood vessels.
 Systolic Pressure (Top Number)
➤ Pressure when the heart beats (pumps
blood).
 Diastolic Pressure (Bottom Number)
➤ Pressure when the heart is resting between
beats.
 Example:
120/80 mmHg
→ 120 = systolic, 80 = diastolic

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 Atherosclerosis/ Arteriosclerosis

⮚ Fat and cholesterol deposits inside arteries make

plaques.
⮚ Plaques develop in inner wall of the arteries, hardens
and narrow their channel. This limits the flow of
oxygen-rich blood to your organs and tissues.
⮚ Increases blood pressure.
⮚ Eventually increase the risk of heart attack, stroke,
kidney damage.
⮚ Atherosclerosis can affect any artery of your body.
Including arteries in heart, brain, arms, legs, pelvis and
kidneys. As a result different diseases or physical
problems can develop based on which arteries are
affected. 33
 These plaques cause the arteries to
harden and narrow, restricting the blood
flow and oxygen supply to vital organs,
and increasing the risk of blood clots that
could potentially block the flow of blood
to the heart or brain

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 Health risks of atherosclerosis

 If left to get worse, atherosclerosis can potentially lead to a number of serious conditions known
as cardiovascular disease (CVD). There will not usually be any symptoms until CVD develops.Types of
CVD include:
 Coronary heart disease – the main arteries that supply your heart (the coronary arteries) become
clogged with plaques
 angina – short periods of tight, dull or heavy chest pain caused by coronary heart disease, which may
precede a heart attack
 heart attacks – where the blood supply to your heart is blocked, causing sudden crushing or indigestion-
like chest pain that can radiate to nearby areas, as well as shortness of breath and dizziness
 strokes – where the blood supply to your brain is interrupted, causing the face to droop to 1 side,
weakness on 1 side of the body, and slurred speech
 transient ischaemic attacks (TIAs) – where there are temporary symptoms of a stroke
 peripheral arterial disease – where the blood supply to your legs is blocked, causing leg pain when
walking
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 Atherosclerosis/ Arteriosclerosis:Risk factors
• People with a higher risk of atherosclerosis include those with:
 diabetes or insulin resistance
 a family history of cardiovascular disease
 a history of tobacco smoking
 high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), or “bad” cholesterol
 low physical activity levels
 older age
 a diet high in saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, salt, and sugar
 high blood pressure
 obesity
 high levels of triglycerides in the blood
 stress
 high alcohol intake
 sleep apnea
 Recent evidence indicates that inflammation may play a role. Research suggests that air pollution could
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increase the risk by triggering inflammation.
 Heart Attack

• What is a heart attack?

• A heart attack, also called a myocardial
infarction, happens when a part of the
heart muscle doesn’t get enough blood.
• The more time that passes without
treatment to restore blood flow, the
greater the damage to the heart muscle.
• Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the main
cause of heart attack. A less common
cause is a severe spasm, or sudden
contraction, of a coronary artery that can
stop blood flow to the heart muscle.
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 Heart Attack

• What are the symptoms of heart attack?

• The major symptoms of a heart attack are
• Chest pain or discomfort. Most heart attacks involve discomfort in the
center or left side of the chest that lasts for more than a few minutes or
that goes away and comes back. The discomfort can feel like
uncomfortable pressure, squeezing, fullness, or pain.
• Feeling weak, light-headed, or faint. You may also break out into a cold
sweat.
• Pain or discomfort in the jaw, neck, or back.
• Pain or discomfort in one or both arms or shoulders.
• Shortness of breath. This often comes along with chest discomfort, but
shortness of breath also can happen before chest discomfort.
• Other symptoms of a heart attack could include unusual or unexplained
tiredness and nausea or vomiting. Women are more likely to have these
other symptoms.
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 Stroke

 A stroke, sometimes called a brain

attack, usually result from
rupture/blockage of arteries in the
brain. This prevents the brain from
getting oxygen and nutrients from the
blood. Without oxygen and nutrients,
brain cells begin to die within minutes.
 Sudden bleeding in the brain can also
cause a stroke if it damages brain cells.
In either case, parts of the brain
become damaged or die.

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 Stroke

 Cholesterol can make our artery walls rough. These causes blood to clot, as it flows past.
Blockage of artery is known as thrombosis. A thrombosis of brain blood vessel is called
Stroke. Brain cells are starved of blood eventually starved of oxygen and nutrients. Brain
cells die.
 A stroke is a medical emergency. A stroke can cause lasting brain damage, long-term
disability, or even death.
 Signs of a stroke can range from mild weakness to paralysis or numbness on one side of the
face or body. Other signs include a sudden and severe headache, sudden weakness, trouble
seeing, and trouble speaking or understanding speech.

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41
How Arteries get Blocked

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 How to avoid heart diseases

 Cutting down on fried food. We can grill, boil or steam, rather

than fry. If we do fry, we should use corn, soya or sunflower
oils.
 Eating less red meat
 Cutting off any fat while eating anything
 Eating less dairy foods ( eggs, butter, milk and cream )

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 How to avoid heart diseases

⮚ Eating more poultry and fish, because they are less fatty.
⮚ Eating more fresh fruit and vegetables.
⮚ No smoking
⮚ Doing exercise regularly.
⮚ Taking time to relax before we go to bed

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Blood
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 BLOOD
 Blood is one of the connective tissues. As
a connective tissue, it consists of cells
and cell fragments (formed elements) suspended in
an intercellular matrix (plasma).
 Blood is the only liquid tissue in the body that
measures about 5 litres in an adult human and
accounts for 8 per cent of the body weight.

Why is blood called a connective tissue?

 Blood is regarded as a connective tissue because as
the blood is circulated throughout the body due to
pumping action of heart, it carries different
materials and gases from one part of the body to
another. Hence, it connects different tissues and
organs of the body and thus, called as a connective
tissue. 46
 Functions of blood
• The activities of the blood may be categorized as transportation, regulation, and protection. These functional
categories overlap and interact as the blood carries out its role in providing suitable conditions for celluar
functions.
The transport functions include:
• Blood Provides the Body's Cells with Oxygen and Removes Carbon Dioxide. Blood absorbs oxygen from air in
the lungs. It transports the oxygen to cells throughout the body, and it removes waste carbon dioxide from the
cells. In the lungs, the carbon dioxide moves from the blood to the air and is exhaled.
• Blood Transports Nutrients and Hormones:
 Blood plays a large role in digestion and endocrine system functions. Digested nutrients are absorbed into the
bloodstream through capillaries in the villi that line the small intestine. These nutrients include glucose, amino
acids, vitamins, minerals, and fatty acids.
 Blood also transports some hormones secreted by endocrine system glands to target organs and tissues.
• Transporting carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes from the tissues to the lungs and kidneys where these
wastes can be removed from the body. Blood transports waste substances to the organs that remove and
process them for elimination. Blood flows into the kidneys through the renal arteries and out through the renal
veins. The kidneys filter substances such as urea, uric acid, and creatinine out of the blood plasma and into the
ureters. The liver also removes toxins from blood. During digestion, it cleans blood that has been enriched with
vitamins before sending it back out to the rest of the body. 47
 Functions of blood
The regulation functions include:
 Helping regulate body temperature by removing heat from active areas, such as skeletal
muscles, and transporting it to other regions or to the skin where it can be dissipated.
Blood absorbs and distributes heat throughout the body. It helps to maintain homeostasis
through the release or conservation of warmth. Blood vessels expand and contract when
they react to outside organisms, such as bacteria, and to internal hormone and chemical
changes. These actions move blood and heat closer to or farther from the skin surface,
where heat is lost.
 Playing a significant role in fluid and electrolyte balance because the salts and plasma
proteins contribute to the osmotic pressure.
 Functioning in pH regulation through the action of buffers in the blood.

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 Functions of blood
The protection functions include:
 Preventing fluid loss through hemorrhage when blood vessels are damaged due to its
clotting mechanisms. When a blood vessel tears, platelets and plasma proteins work
together to stop blood loss. Platelets, also called thrombocytes, clump and form a plug in
the damaged area. The proteins form threads called fibrins to complete the platelet plug,
or clot.
• Helping (phagocytic white blood cells) to protect the body against microorganisms that
cause disease by engulfing and destroying the agent. White Blood Cells Protect the Body
from Pathogens. White blood cells, also called leukocytes, are the disease-fighting
components of blood. They account for just 1% of circulating blood but multiply during
infection or inflammation. There are five types of white blood cells: neutrophils,
eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes. Neutrophils are the most abundant,
comprising 60% to 70% of all white blood cells.
 Protecting (antibodies in the plasma) against disease by their reactions with offending
agents. 49
 BLOOD COMPONENT: PLASMA

• If you centrifuge a blood sample, the yellowish clear liquid will be found on the top, called
plasma (55%)
• Plasma composed of water (90%), proteins + other solutes (~10%). The contents include:
• Glucose, hormones. Proteins, mineral salts, fats
• The largest group of solutes in plasma consist of plasma proteins, which serve a variety of
functions.
• Important plasma proteins include
 albumins,
 globulins, and
 clotting proteins.

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Blood Composition

51
 BLOOD COMPONENT

What is the Buffy Coat?

The buffy coat accounts for less than 1 percent of

a whole blood sample, yet it contains the
majority of white blood cells (WBC) and platelets.
In fact, leukocytes can be 10-20X more
concentrated in the buffy coat than in whole
blood. Therefore these samples are highly
valuable for researchers and healthcare
professionals who require WBC and platelets for
studies or treatments.

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BLOOD COMPONENT

53
 Plasma Protein

Albumins:
 Albumin is 2/3 of the total plasma protein.
 Manufactured in the liver.
 Maintain water balance between blood and the interstitial fluid.
 Albumins also bind to certain molecules such as bilirubin, fatty acids and medicines and
assist their transport in blood.

Globulins:

 Globulins (alpha, beta, and gamma) transport various substances in the blood.
 Beta globulin binds to lipid molecules, such as cholesterol. When a protein attaches to one
of these molecules, it creates a complex called a lipoprotein.
 Two medically important lipoproteins are the
• low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
• high-density lipoprotein (HDL).
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 Plasma

Clotting proteins:

 Clotting proteins, play an important role in the process of blood clotting. Blood clotting
minimizes blood loss and helps maintain homeostasis after injury.
 Plasma also contains other substrates such as;
Electrolytes - Na+, K+, Ca++, Mg++
Nutrients - glucose, amino acids, fatty acids etc.
Gases - O2, N2, CO2
Regulatory substance - hormones, enzymes, vitamins and wastes

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 Cellular Components

Three (3) types of blood cells;

 Red blood cells or Erythrocytes

 White blood cells or leukocytes
 Platelet or Thrombocytes

Figure – Electron Microscopic image of

RBC, WBC and Platelets

Figure: Different blood cells. 56

 Where Do Blood Cells Come From?
• Blood cells are made in the bone marrow. The bone marrow is the spongy material in the
center of the bones that makes all types of blood cells.
• Blood cells develop from hematopoietic stem cells and are formed in the bone marrow through
the highly regulated process of hematopoiesis. Hematopoietic stem cells are capable of
transforming into red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. These stem cells can be
found circulating in the blood and bone marrow of people of all ages, as well as in the umbilical
cords of newborn babies. Stem cells from all three sources may be used to treat a variety of
diseases, including leukaemia, lymphoma, bone marrow failure, and various immune disorders.
• A stem cell (or hematopoietic stem cell) is the first phase of all blood cells. As the stem cell
matures, several distinct cells evolve. These include red blood cells, white blood cells, and
platelets. Immature blood cells are also called blasts. Some blasts stay in the marrow to mature.
Others travel to other parts of the body to develop into mature, functioning blood cells.
• There are other organs and systems in our bodies that help regulate blood cells. The lymph
nodes, spleen, and liver help regulate the production, destruction, and function of cells. The
production and development of new cells in the bone marrow is a process called
hematopoiesis. 57
WHAT IS STEM CELL?

58
BONE MARROW

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Production of Blood Cells

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61
 The Components of Blood and Their Importance
• Red blood cells are small, flattened, doughnut-shaped disks whose centers are thinner
than their edges
• The specific shape makes them flexible, so they can bend and move to squeeze through
tiny blood vessels.
• They are red because they contain a protein called hemoglobin that is red in color
because of iron.
• Red blood cells carry oxygen to body tissues and remove carbon dioxide.
• RBCs are continuously being produced in the bone marrow of large bones.
• In an adult, the total count of RBC is 4.5 to 5.5 million per mm3 of blood.
• Known for their bright red color, red cells are the most abundant cell in the blood,
accounting for about 40 to 45 percent of its volume.

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 The Components of Blood and Their Importance
• Production of red blood cells is controlled by erythropoietin, a hormone produced
primarily by the kidneys.
• Red blood cells start as immature cells in the bone marrow and , after approximately
seven days of maturation, are released into the bloodstream.
• Unlike many other cells, red blood cells have no nucleus and can easily change shape,
helping them fit through the various blood vessels in your body. However, while the lack
of a nucleus makes a red blood cell more flexible, it also limits the life of the cell as it
travels through the smallest blood vessels, damaging the cell's membranes and depleting
its energy supplies. The red blood cell survives, on average, only 120 days.
• Red cells contain a special protein called hemoglobin, which helps carry oxygen from the
lungs to the rest of the body and then returns carbon dioxide from the body to the lungs
so it can be exhaled. Blood appears red because of the large number of red blood cells,
which get their color from the hemoglobin.
• The percentage of whole blood volume that is made up of red blood cells is called the
hematocrit and is a common measure of red blood cell levels. 63
 The Components of Blood and Their Importance
• White Blood Cells (also called leukocytes)
• White blood cells protect the body from infection. They are much fewer in number
than red blood cells, accounting for about 1 percent of your blood.
 WBCs are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system.
 WBC can phagocytes means eat up the germs (disease causing agents).
 In an adult, the total count of WBC is 7 to 10 thousand per mm3 of blood.
• The other major type of white blood cell is a lymphocyte. There are two main
populations of these cells. T lymphocytes help regulate the function of other immune
cells and directly attack various infected cells and tumors. B lymphocytes make
antibodies, which are proteins that specifically target bacteria, viruses, and other
foreign materials.

64
 The Components of Blood and Their Importance
• There are several types of white blood cells, and each has its own role in fighting
bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic infections. Types of white blood cells that are most
important for helping protect the body from infection and foreign cells include the
following:
• Neutrophils
• Eosinophils
• Lymphocytes
• Monocytes
• Basophils

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 The Components of Blood and Their Importance
• Granulocytes
• Granulocytes are the type of white blood cells that are present in the cytoplasm in the
form of granules. They have four lobes and are also known as polymorphonuclear
leukocytes.
• Granulocytes are of three different types:
• Neutrophils: They make up around 60% of the total granulocytes and is mostly found in
the blood.
• Eosinophils: These are kidney-shaped granulocytes involved in destroying different
parasites in the body.
• Basophils: These are present in the least amount and are found in the bone marrow or
bloodstream. They protect the body from any infections.

66
 The Components of Blood and Their Importance
• Agranulocytes
• These are the type of white blood cells without the granules. They have only one lobe
and are known as mononuclear leukocytes due to the presence of just one nucleus.
They constitute about 35% of the total white blood cells present in the body.
• Agranulocytes are of three different types:
• Lymphocytes: These are one of the most important types of white blood cells. They
provide stability to the human body and prevent it from serious infections.
• Monocytes: These are present in large numbers and possess an amoeboid shape.
• Macrophages: These aid in the process of digestion of cellular debris and pathogens.
They are uninuclear with fewer lobes.

67
The Components of Blood and Their Importance

68
 The Components of Blood and Their Importance
• Neutrophils (polymorphonuclear leucocytes)
• Compose approximately 40-70% of the white blood count
• These cells have a single nucleus with multiple lobes. Neutrophils are the most abundant white
blood cell in circulation. They are chemically drawn to bacteria and migrate through tissue toward
infection sites. Neutrophils are phagocytic, meaning that they engulf and destroy target cells. When
released, their granules act as lysosomes to digest cellular macromolecules, destroying the
neutrophil.
• Eosinophils
• Phagocytic & Cytotoxic
• Eosinophils are a type of white blood cell that protect your body from parasites, allergens, foreign
bacteria and outside organisms.
• Eosinophils are larger than most cells and make up less than 5% of all white blood cells in your body.
• Granules release proteins cytotoxic to parasites: MBP, peroxidase, arylsulphatase B, phospholipase
D, and histaminase.
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 The Components of Blood and Their Importance
• Basophils
• Non-Phagocytic
• Compose approximately 3% of the white blood count.
• Involved in Type I hypersensitivity
• Basophils function to defend your body against:Allergens. Bacterial, fungal and viral infections
(pathogens).
• Lymphocytes
• Compose approximately 25% of the white blood count
• Produced by the bone marrow.
• Termed B cells when they achieve immune-competence within the marrow
• Termed T cells when they achieve immune-competence within the thymus
• T cells control your body’s immune system response and directly attack and kill infected cells and
tumor cells.
• B cells make antibodies. Antibodies are proteins that target viruses, bacteria and other foreign
invaders. 70
 The Components of Blood and Their Importance
• Monocytes
• Monocytes are amoeboid in appearance, and have nongranulated cytoplasm.
• With a diameter of 15–22 μm, monocytes are the largest cell type in peripheral
blood. Monocytes are mononuclear cells and have a bean-shaped or kidney-shaped
appearance. Monocytes compose 2% to 10% of all leukocytes in the human body.
• Within approximately one day from being produced in the marrow, monocytes are transported
to various organs where they become tissue macrophages via the influence of cytokines.
– kidney - mesangial cells
– bone - osteoclasts
– liver - Kupfer cells
– brain - microglia

71
 The Components of Blood and Their Importance
• Platelets (also called thrombocytes)
 Platelets result from cell fragmentation and are involved with clotting by carrying chemicals
essential for blood clotting.
 Without blood platelets, we would bleed to death.
 There are 0.15 - 0.3 million platelets per mm3 of blood.
• Unlike red and white blood cells, platelets are not actually cells but rather small fragments of cells.
Platelets help the blood clotting process (or coagulation) by gathering at the site of an injury,
sticking to the lining of the injured blood vessel, and forming a platform on which blood coagulation
can occur. This results in the formation of a fibrin clot, which covers the wound and prevents blood
from leaking out. Fibrin also forms the initial scaffolding upon which new tissue forms, thus
promoting healing.
• A higher than normal number of platelets can cause unnecessary clotting, which can lead to strokes
and heart attacks; however, thanks to advances made in antiplatelet therapies, there are
treatments available to help prevent these potentially fatal events. Conversely, lower than normal
counts can lead to extensive bleeding.
72
 Platelets (contd.)

• If a blood vessel is cut, platelets stick to the

edges of the cut and to one another,
forming a plug that stops bleeding.

• They then release chemicals that react

with fibrinogen and other clotting proteins,
leading to the formation of a blood clot.

• The blood vessel can then heal over the cut

area.

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 Complete Blood Count (CBC)

• Complete Blood Count (CBC)

• A CBC test quantifies red and white blood cells and platelets in the blood, which can help
diagnose medical conditions or diseases such as leukaemia, thalassemia, and anaemia. It
is also beneficial for tracking progress or helping manage preexisting conditions like
anemia, infection, or blood disorders.
A CBC measures various components of your blood, including:
• Red blood cell count
• The volume percentage of red blood cells (hematocrit)
• The levels of haemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein of red blood cells
• White blood cell count, including total amounts of white blood cells and percentages of
specific types of white blood cells (CBC with differential)
• Platelet count

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 Complete Blood Count (CBC)

• A CBC can be used to find problems with either the production or destruction of blood
cells. Variations from the normal number, size, or maturity of the blood cells can be used
to mean there is an infection or disease process.
• Often with an infection, the number of white blood cells will be elevated.
• Many forms of cancer can affect the production of blood cells. For instance, an increase
in the immature white blood cells in a CBC can be associated with leukaemia.
• Blood diseases, such as anaemia and sickle cell disease, will cause abnormally low
haemoglobin.
• The platelet count and plasma clotting tests (prothrombin time, partial thromboplastin
time, and thrombin time) may be used to evaluate bleeding and clotting disorders.

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76
 BLOOD CELLS

Figure: Blood cell number of an healthy individual.

77
 BLOOD TYPING SYSTEM

 Human blood is grouped into 4 types

 Based on two Antigens A and B on the surface of red blood cell.
 A, B, AB, and O
 Each blood type is also grouped by its Rhesus factor, or Rh factor.
 Blood is either Rh positive (Rh+) or Rh negative (Rh-).
 Type O- blood is considered the “universal donor” because it can be donated to
people of any blood type. It contains no antigen.
 Type AB+ blood is considered the “universal recipient” because people with this type
can receive any blood type. It contain both the antigens and will not produce any
antibody against foreign antigen.

78
BLOOD TYPING SYSTEM

79
 Rh BLOOD TYPE

Another red blood cell surface antigen, called Rh factor (D antigen).

Rh+ ……individual has Rh antigen

Rh-……individual do not has Rh antigen; their immune systems
respond to any foreign Rh antigen by making antibodies against
it.

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 Blood Conditions
 Hemorrhage (bleeding): Blood leaking out of blood vessels may be obvious, as from a wound
penetrating the skin. Internal bleeding (such as into the intestines, or after a car accident) may not be
immediately apparent.
 Hematoma: A collection of blood inside the body tissues. Internal bleeding often causes a hematoma.
 Leukemia: A form of blood cancer, in which white blood cells multiply abnormally and circulate
through the blood. The abnormal white blood cells make getting sick from infections easier than
normal.
 Multiple myeloma: A form of blood cancer of plasma cells similar to leukemia. Anemia, kidney failure
and high blood calcium levels are common in multiple myeloma.
 Lymphoma: A form of blood cancer, in which white blood cells multiply abnormally inside lymph nodes
and other tissues. The enlarging tissues, and disruption of blood's functions, can eventually cause
organ failure.
 Anemia: An abnormally low number of red blood cells in the blood. Fatigue and breathlessness can
result, although anemia often causes no noticeable symptoms.
 Hemolytic anemia: Anemia caused by rapid bursting of large numbers of red blood cells (hemolysis).
An immune system malfunction is one cause. 81
 Blood Conditions
 Hemochromatosis: A disorder causing excessive levels of iron in the blood. The iron
deposits in the liver, pancreas and other organs, causing liver problems and diabetes.
 Sickle cell disease: A genetic condition in which red blood cells periodically lose their
proper shape (appearing like sickles, rather than discs). The deformed blood cells deposit in
tissues, causing pain and organ damage.
 Bacteremia: Bacterial infection of the blood. Blood infections are serious, and often require
hospitalization and continuous antibiotic infusion into the veins.
 Malaria: Infection of red blood cells by Plasmodium, a parasite transmitted by mosquitos.
Malaria causes episodic fevers, chills, and potentially organ damage.
 Thrombocytopenia: Abnormally low numbers of platelets in the blood. Severe
thrombocytopenia may lead to bleeding.
 Leukopenia: Abnormally low numbers of white blood cells in the blood. Leukopenia can
result in difficulty fighting infections.

82
 Blood Conditions

• Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC): An uncontrolled process of simultaneous

bleeding and clotting in very small blood vessels. DIC usually results from severe infections or
cancer.
• Hemophilia: An inherited (genetic) deficiency of certain blood clotting proteins. Frequent or
uncontrolled bleeding can result from haemophilia.
• Hypercoaguable state: Numerous conditions can result in the blood being prone to clotting. A
heart attack, stroke, or blood clots in the legs or lungs can result.
• Polycythemia: Abnormally high numbers of red blood cells in the blood. Polycythemia can
result from low blood oxygen levels, or may occur as a cancer-like condition.
• Deep venous thrombosis (DVT): A blood clot in a deep vein, usually in the leg. DVTs are
dangerous because they may become dislodged and travel to the lungs, causing a pulmonary
embolism (PE).
• Myocardial infarction (MI): Commonly called a heart attack, a myocardial infarction occurs
when a sudden blood clot develops in one of the coronary arteries, which supply blood to the
heart.
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84
Karl Landsteiner discovered
the ABO blood group system
in 1901, identifying antigens
(A and B) on red blood cells
and corresponding antibodies
in the plasma. This discovery
laid the foundation for safe
blood transfusions and earned
him the Nobel Prize in 1930

85
 ABO Antigens

 They are Carbohydrate antigens (glycoprotein) .

 Two types of antigens - A, and B are presented by
the red blood cells and according to their presence
and absence, we’ve got four types of blood group –
A, B, AB and O.

Antibody

 Antibodies are proteins found in blood plasma. They're part of our body’s natural defenses. Produced by
the immune system following exposure to a foreign antigen, germs or particles.
 Antibodies bind specifically to the corresponding antigen on the red cells.
 Humans with A-type blood do not contain antibody against A-antigen, they possess antibody against
antigen B.

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 Rh Antigens

 Six antigens in this group as C, c, D, d, E

and e.
 Type D antigen is widely prevalent in
population and determiner of Rh Blood
type.
 Presence of D antigen = Rh Positive
(+ve) Absence of D antigen = Rh
Negative (-ve)

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 Determination of Blood Group
 Human red blood cells possessing A and/or B antigen will agglutinate in the presence of antibody directed
towards the antigen.
 Agglutination of RBC with Anti-A, Anti-B and Anti-AB reagents are a positive test result and indicates the
presence of the corresponding antigen..
 Rho (D) antigen will agglutinate in the presence of antibody directed towards the antigen. Agglutination of
RBC with spectrum Anti-D (Rho) reagents is a positive test result and indicates the presence of D (Rho)
antigen.

Reagents:
1. Reagent A (Anti-A)
2. Reagent B (Anti-B)
3. Reagent D (Anti-D)

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