FLUID MECHANICS

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

• Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics that deals with the behavior of
fluids (liquids and gases) at rest and in motion. It is fundamental in civil
engineering for applications in hydraulics, water resource management,
and structural stability.
• Fluid mechanics is essential in civil engineering as it helps engineers
understand how fluids behave under different conditions, both at rest
(hydrostatics) and in motion (fluid dynamics). Fluid mechanics is crucial for
designing, analyzing, and maintaining systems and structures that interact
with fluid environments.
The study of fluid mechanics is broadly divided into two main areas:
1.Hydrostatics (Fluids at Rest)
Hydrostatics deals with the behavior of fluids when they are not in motion. This
includes analyzing pressure at different depths, the forces exerted by static fluids
on structures, and the buoyant forces on submerged objects. Applications of
hydrostatics in civil engineering include:
• Design of Dams and Reservoirs: Engineers must calculate the pressure exerted by
stored water on dam walls to ensure structural integrity.
• Foundation Engineering: Groundwater exerts hydrostatic pressure on building
foundations, which needs to be considered to prevent water seepage and
structural failure.
• Storage Tanks and Water Towers: Proper design ensures that pressure due to
water height is managed safely.
2. Fluid Dynamics (Fluids in Motion)
Fluid dynamics is concerned with fluids in motion and the forces involved. This
field helps engineers understand flow rates, velocity profiles, turbulence, and
energy losses due to friction and other factors. Applications include:
• Water Supply and Distribution Systems: Engineers use fluid dynamics
principles to design pipe networks that efficiently transport water from sources
to end-users, taking into account flow rates and pressure losses.
• Sewer and Drainage Systems: Understanding flow behavior is essential in
designing systems that prevent flooding and ensure sanitary conditions.
• Irrigation and Hydropower: For agricultural and energy projects, knowledge of
flow patterns and energy conversion helps in optimizing designs.
• Flood Control Structures: Levees, spillways, and retention basins are designed
using fluid dynamics to manage extreme flows during heavy rainfall.
 BASIC PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
1. Density (ρ)
 Definition: Mass per unit volume of a fluid.

 Formula:

ρ=m/V

•where ρ is density (kg/m³), m is mass (kg), and V is volume (m³).

2. Specific Weight (γ)

 Definition: Weight per unit volume of a fluid.

 Formula:

•γ=ρg
33. Specific Gravity (SG)
 Definition: Ratio of the density of a fluid to the density of water at 4°C (1000 kg/m³).
 Formula:
•SG=ρfluid/ρwater
4. Viscosity (μ)
 Definition: A measure of a fluid’s resistance to shear or flow.

 Types:
o Dynamic (absolute) viscosity: Measures internal resistance.
o Kinematic viscosity (ν):
ν=μ/ρ​
 Units:
o Dynamic: Pa or N/m²
o Kinematic: m²/s
5. Surface Tension (σ)
 Definition: The property that allows a fluid to resist external force due to cohesive forces
among molecules at the surface.
 Importance: Affects capillarity and droplet formation, important in small-scale fluid
systems.

6. Capillarity
 Definition: The ability of a fluid to rise or fall in a small tube due to surface tension and
adhesion.
 Examples: Water rising in a thin tube, movement of groundwater through soil.

7. Compressibility
 Definition: The extent to which a fluid can be compressed under pressure.

Importance: Liquids are considered incompressible; gases are compressible.

8. Vapor Pressure
 Definition: The pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its liquid at a
given temperature.
 Importance: If local pressure drops below vapor pressure, cavitation may occur
in pumps or turbines.

9. Temperature

Definition: A measure of thermal energy of a fluid

• Affects most fluid properties like viscosity, density, and vapor pressure. Fluid
behavior often changes significantly with temperature, especially in gases
Fluid Statics
• Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure at any given
point within a fluid, that is exerted by the weight of
the fluid above that point
• If the fluid is at rest, then all the points within the fluid
are in equilibrium
• Therefore, the pressure acts in all directions at each
point
 Key Concepts in Fluid Statics

1. Pressure in a Fluid
 Pressure (P) is defined as the force exerted per unit area:

P=F/A

where:
o P is pressure (Pa or N/m²)
o F is force (N)
o A is area (m²)

 In a fluid at rest, pressure acts equally in all directions at a given point (Pascal’s Law).
2. Hydrostatic Pressure

 In a fluid column, pressure increases with depth due to the weight of the fluid above.

 Formula:

P = ρgh

where:
o ρ is the fluid density (kg/m³)
o g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s²)
o h is the depth below the fluid surface (m)
 3. Pascal’s Law
 States that when pressure is applied to a confined incompressible fluid, the
pressure change is transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid.
 Basis for hydraulic systems (e.g., car brakes, hydraulic lifts).

Mathematical Expression:

P=F/A

Where:
 P = pressure

 F = force applied

 A = area over which the force is applied

In a hydraulic system:

F1/A1 = F2/A2
This principle is the foundation of hydraulic lifts, brakes, and jacks.
1. Hydraulic Jack
A small force applied on a small piston generates a large force on a larger piston.
 If A1​is the small piston area and A2 the large piston:

F2=F1⋅A2/A1

This allows lifting of heavy vehicles using a relatively small effort.

2. Hydraulic Press
 Used in molding, forging, and car crushing.
 Large force is generated by applying pressure to a small piston.

3. Braking Systems (Hydraulic Brakes)

 When the brake pedal is pressed, fluid pressure is transmitted to brake pads, applying force to
stop wheels.
4. Types of Pressure
• Pressure is the force applied per unit area to a surface. The force may be
spread throughout the surface or can be considered to act only at a point
on the surface as a unit of pressure. There are different types of pressure
depending on the measuring types.
There are different types of pressure based on their measurement
types which are as follows:

1. Absolute Pressure

• The pressure measured with a vacuum taken as reference is known as the

absolute pressure. This is independent of the atmospheric pressure and other
environmental conditions. This type of pressure is mostly used for scientific
experiments where the requirement of pressure independent from other
factors is required. It is measured with a special type of pressure gauge
known as the absolute pressure gauge which has a vacuum attached to it to
be used as reference.
Pabs=Pgauge+ Patm​
2. Atmospheric Pressure: Atmospheric Pressure refers to the pressure exerted
by the Earth's atmosphere on its surface, with a normal value of 101.325 kPa at
sea level. This pressure is equivalent to the weight of the column of air above
one square meter of the Earth's surface.

3. Gauge Pressure is defined as the pressure measured with the atmospheric

pressure as the reference. It is found out using the formula :

Gauge Pressure = P–Pa

Where,
P = Pressure recorded on the pressure gauge scale
•Pa = Atmospheric Pressure
5. Manometers
 Devices used to measure pressure based on fluid columns.

 Types include:
o U-tube manometer
U-tube manometer
• A manometer is an instrument to measure pressure and
density of two liquids
A U-tube manometer shows changes in pressure as
the liquid moves in the tube
• In Figure 1: The level of liquid is equal because the
atmospheric pressure (Patm) is the same
• In Figure 2: If the pressure on one side rises, the liquid will
be forced down making the liquid in the other limb rise. The
difference between the two levels gives the pressure
difference between the two ends of the tube
• In Figure 3: The U-tube now has two different liquids.
The density of the blue one is greater than that of the
orange one. The pressure at each point is due to the
atmospheric pressure plus the weight of the liquid
above it.
 6.Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle
 Any object submerged in a fluid experience an upward buoyant force equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced.

Fb= ρfluid​⋅g⋅Vdisplaced​

 Determines whether objects float or sink and is essential in ship design and
floating structures.
ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
• The buoyant force acting on a submerged object is equal to the
weight of the fluid the object displaces
• ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE states that the WEIGHT of the amount of
water displaced is equal to the BUOYANT FORCE.
DENSITY
• DOES DENSITY HAVE SOMETHING TO DO WITH IF SOMETHING SINKS
OR FLOATS?
DENSITY
=m/v

DENSITY OF WATER = 1 g/cm3

• If the object has a higher density, it sinks.

• If the object has a lower density, it floats.
• if the object has the same density, it flinks (floats in the middle of the
water).
 DENSITY & BUOYANCY
• Having a lower density than water means that the beach ball’s
buoyant force is higher than the weight of the beach ball.

SO, THE BEACH

BALL FLOATS.
DENSITY & BUOYANCY
• Having a higher density than water means that the cinder block’s
buoyant force is lower than the weight of the cinder block.

SO, THE CINDER

BLOCK SINKS.

WATER
DENSITY & BUOYANCY
• Having the same density as water means that the boot’s buoyant
force is equal to the weight of the boot.

SO THE BOOT
NEITHER SINKS
NOR FLOATS, IT
FLINKS

WATER
CHANGING DENSITY
You can change an object’s density by:
1. Increasing/decreasing its mass
2. Increasing/decreasing its volume

m
=
v
AN OBJECT FLOATS
CAUSES:
• Weight is less than the buoyant force.
• Object is less dense than the fluid
• Object decreases its mass and becomes less dense than the fluid.
• Object increases its volume and becomes denser than the fluid.
AN OBJECT SINKS
CAUSES:
1. Weight is greater than the buoyant force.
2. Object is denser than the fluid
3. Object increases its mass and becomes denser than the fluid.
4. Object decreases its volume and becomes denser than the fluid.
Floating Object
 Buoyant force = weight of the object

 Object displaces fluid equal to its own weight

Submerged Object (but not sinking)

 Buoyant force = weight

 Displaced volume = object’s full volume

Sinking Object
 Buoyant force < weight

 Net downward force = object sinks

Energy Conservation and Bernoulli’s Equation

• The application of the principle of conservation of energy to frictionless

laminar flow leads to a very useful relation between pressure and flow
speed in a fluid. This relation is called Bernoulli’s equation, named after
Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782), who published his studies on fluid motion in
his book Hydrodynamics (1738).
 For an incompressible, frictionless fluid, the combination of pressure and the sum of kinetic
and potential energy densities is constant not only over time, but also along a streamline:
 Analyzing Bernoulli’s Equation
• According to Bernoulli’s equation, if we follow a small volume of fluid along its
path, various quantities in the sum may change, but the total remains constant.
Bernoulli’s equation is, in fact, just a convenient statement of conservation of
energy for an incompressible fluid in the absence of friction.
• Bernoulli’s equation for static fluids
• First consider the very simple situation where the fluid is static—that is, v1=v2=0.
Bernoulli’s equation in that case is

• We can further simplify the equation by setting h2 = 0. (Any height can be chosen
for a reference height of zero, as is often done for other situations involving
gravitational force, making all other heights relative.) In this case, we get
Bernoulli’s principle

• Suppose a fluid is moving but its depth is constant—that is, h1=h2. Under this
condition, Bernoulli’s equation becomes
An electrolyte tin-planting process gives a tin coating that is
7.50cm thick. How large an area can be coated with 0.500kg of
tin? The density of tin is 7300kg/ .
A plastic box is in the shape of a cube measuring 20 cm on each side. The box is completely
filled with water and remains at rest on a flat surface. The box is open to the atmosphere
at the top. Assume atmospheric pressure is 1x105 Pa and use g = 10 m/s2.
(a) What is the gauge pressure at the bottom of the box?
(b) What is the absolute pressure at the bottom of the box?
(c) What is the force associated with this absolute pressure?
(d) What is the force associated with the absolute pressure acting on the inside surface of
one side of the box?
(e) What is the net force associated with pressure acting on one side of the box?
• (f) What is the net force acting on one side of the box?
• Consider an object that sinks to the bottom of a beaker of liquid. The object is a block
with a weight of 20 N, when weighed in air. The beaker it is to be placed in contains
some water, as well as a waterproof scale that rests on the bottom of the beaker. This
scale is tared to read zero, and let’s assume the scale is unaffected by any changes in
the level of the water above it. The beaker itself rests on a second scale that reads 50
N, the combined weight of the beaker, the water, and the scale inside the beaker.
When the 20-N block is placed in the beaker, it sinks to the bottom and comes to rest
on the scale in the beaker, which now reads 5.0 N. This is known as the apparent
weight of the block. Let’s assume g = 10 m/s2 to simplify the calculations. (a) What is
the magnitude and direction of the buoyant force applied on the block by the water?
(b) With the block now completely immersed in the water, what is the reading on the
scale under the beaker? (c) What is the block’s density and volume?