INTRODUCTION

• Instrumentation is a technology of measurement which

serves sciences, engineering, medicine and etc.

• Measurement is the process of determining the amount,

degree or capacity by comparison with the accepted
standards of the system units being used.

• Instrument is a device for determining the value or

magnitude of a quantity or variable.

• Electronic instrument is based on electrical or electronic

principles for its measurement functions.

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FUNCTION AND ADVANTAGES
• The 3 basic functions of instrumentation :-
• Indicating – visualize the process/operation
• Recording – observe and save the measurement reading
• Controlling – to control measurement and process

• Advantages of electronic measurement

– Results high sensitivity rating – the use of amplifier
– Increase the input impedance – thus lower loading
effects
– Ability to monitor remote signal

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 Typical Measurement System
Architecture
Noise and Interference

Process
Process Signal
or Sensor
or
Test
or Amp Conditioner
Test Transducer

ADC
Converter
OUR TOPIC IS HERE
Proces
s
PC comp
and data
Controller storage
… and control
over the process or experiment

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Examples of Electronic Sensor applications

Uses infrared optical sensor

New Solar Power Faucet by Sloan Valve
•0.5 gpm aerator regulates water flow
•Electronic sensor automatically turns
water on/off
•Integral temperature control

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 PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS
• Performance Characteristics - characteristics that show the
performance of an instrument.
• Eg: accuracy, precision, resolution, sensitivity.
• Allows users to select the most suitable instrument for a
specific measuring jobs.
• Two basic characteristics :
• Static – measuring a constant process condition.
• Dynamic - measuring a varying process condition.

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 PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS
• Accuracy – the degree of exactness (closeness) of
measurement compared to the expected (desired) value.
• Resolution – the smallest change in a measurement variable to
which an instrument will respond.
• Precision – a measure of consistency or repeatability of
measurement, i.e successive reading do not differ.
• Sensitivity – ratio of change in the output (response) of
instrument to a change of input or measured variable.
• Expected value – the design value or the most probable value
that expect to obtain.
• Error – the deviation of the true value from the desired value.

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ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT

• Basic elements of an electronics instrument

Signal Indicatin
Transduce Modifie g Device
r r
1) Transducer
- convert a non electrical signal into an electrical signal
- e.g: a pressure sensor detect pressure and convert it to electricity
for display at a remote gauge.
2) Signal modifier
- convert input signal into a suitable signal for the indicating
device
3) Indicating device
- indicates the value of quantity being measure

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 INSTRUMENT APPLICATION
GUIDE
• Selection, care and use of the instrument :-
 Before using an instrument, students should be thoroughly
familiar with its operation ** read the manual carefully
 Select an instrument to provide the degree of accuracy
required (accuracy + resolution + cost)
 Before used any selected instrument, do the inspection for
any physical problem
 Before connecting the instrument to the circuit, make
sure the ‘function switch’ and the ‘range selector switch’
has been set-up at the proper function or range

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SENSORS & TRANSDUCERS
INTRODUCTION
• A device which detects or measures a physical
property and records, indicates, or otherwise
responds to it.
Examples of physical properties:
• Light, motion, temperature, magnetic
fields, gravity, humidity, moisture , vibration,
pressure, electric fields , sound, and other physical
aspects of the external environment
BASICS
• Transducer:
A transducer is a device that converts one form of
energy to another form of energy. Energy types
include(but are not limited
to) electrical, mechanical, electromagnetic(including li
ght), chemical, acoustic, and thermal energy.
Ex: a loud speaker converts an electric signal to sound.
Sensor and transducer
• ‘Sensor' is `a device that detects a change in a physical stimulus and
turns it into a signal which can be measured or recorded.
E.g. : Thermistor

• ‘Transducer' is 'a device that transfers power from one system to

another in the same or in the different form'.
E.g. Thermistor with it associate circuit convert heat to electricity.

As a comparison……

‘Sensor' for the sensing element itself and 'transducer' for the
sensing element plus any associated circuitry. All transducers would
thus contain a sensor and most (not all) sensors would also be
transducers.

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Sensing process
Definition of a
transducer

Transducer is any device that converts energy in one form to another energy.
The majority either convert electrical energy to mechanical displacement or
convert some non-electrical physical quantity, such as temperature, sound
or light to an electrical signal.

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Functions of transducer
1. To sense the presence, magnitude, change in, and frequency
of some measurand.

2. To provide an electrical output that, when appropriately

processed and applied to readout device, gives accurate
quantitative data about the measurand

Measurand
Transducer Electrical output

Excitation

Measurand – refers to the quantity, property or condition which the

transducer translates to an electrical signal.

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Classification of
transducers
Transducer can be classified according to their application, based primarily on the
physical quantity, property, or condition that is measured.
The transducer can be categories into:
A) Passive transducer:
- requires an external power
- output is a measure of some variation, such resistance and capacitance. E.g. :
condenser microphone

B) Self generating transducer:

- not require an external power, and they produce analog voltage or current when
stimulated by some physical form of energy. E.g. : Thermocouple

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 Selecting a transducers
1. Operating range
2. Sensitivity
3. Frequency response and resonant frequency
4. Environmental compatibility -
5. Minimum sensitivity measurand.
6. Accuracy
7. Usage and ruggedness
8. Electrical parameter

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Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Detectors of wire resistance temperature common employ platinum,
nickel or resistance wire elements, whose resistance variation with
temperature has high intrinsic accuracy. They are available in many
configurations and size and as shielded or open units for both
immersion and surface applications.
The relationship between temperature and resistance of conductors can
be calculated from the equation:

R  R0 (1  T )
where
R = the resistance of the conductor at temperature t ( 0C)
R0 = the resistance at the reference temperature, usually
200C
α = the temperature coefficient of resistance
ΔT = the difference between the operating and the
reference temperature
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Thermistor
A thermistor is a semiconductor made by sintering mixtures of metallic
oxide, such as oxides of manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper and uranium.
Termistors have negative temperature coefficient (NTC). That is, their
resistance decreases as their temperature rises.

Types of thermistor Resistance

Disc 1 to 1MΩ
Washer 1 to 50kΩ
Rod high resistance

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This figure shows resistance
versus temperature for a
family thermistor. The
resistance value marked at
the bottom end of each curve
is a value at 250C

Note!
The resistance
decreases as their
temperature rises-NTC

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 Advantages of thermistor
• Small size and low cost

• Fast response over narrow temperature range

• Good sensitivity in Negative Temperature Coefficient

(NTC) region

• Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence

of resistance on absolute temperature.

• Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered due

to large resistance

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Limitations of thermistor

• Non linearity in resistance vs temperature characteristics

• Unsuitable for wide temperature range
• Very low excitation current to avoids self heating
• Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc due to high resistance

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 Inductive Transducer
Inductive transducers may be either of the self generating or passive type. The
self generating type utilises the basic electrical generator principle, i.e, a motion
between a conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor
(generator action). This relative motion between the field and the conductor is
supplied by changes in the measurand.

An inductive electromechanical transducer is a device that converts physical

motion (position change) into a change in inductance. Transducers of variable
inductance type work upon one of the following principles:
1. Variation of self inductance
2. Variation of mutual inductance

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 Cont..
Inductive transducers are mainly used for the measurement of displacement. The
displacement to be measured is arranged to cause variation in any of three
variables:

1. Number of turns
2. Geometric configuration
3. Permeability of the magnetic material or magnetic circuits

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LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER (LVDT)

It consists basically of a primary winding and

two secondary windings, wound over a hollow
tube and positioned so the primary winding is
between two secondaries. In figure shows the
construction of the LVDT.

An iron core slides within the tube and therefore affects the magnet
coupling between the primary and the two secondaries. When the core is
in the centre, voltage induced in the two secondaries is equal. When the
core is moved in one direction from centre, the voltage induced in one
winding is increased and that in the other is decreased. Movement in the
opposite direction reverses this effect
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Cont..

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Cont..

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• What’s Photoelectric Effect?
-is the emission of electrons from matter upon the
absorption of electromagnetic radiation, such as
ultraviolet radiation or x-rays.-refers to the emission,
or ejection, of electrons from the surface of, generally,
a metal in response to incident light.

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Photoelectric Transducer
Can be categorized as: photoemissive, photoconductive, or photovoltaic.

No. Types Characteristics

1. Photoemmisive radiation falling into a cathode causes

electrons to be emitted from cathode
surface.

2. Photoconductive the resistance of a material is change

when it’s illuminated.

3. Photovoltaic Generate an output voltage

proportional to radiation intensity

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• Examples of Photoelectric Transducer

• (i) The Photomultiplier Tube

• (ii) Photoconductive Cells OR Photocells
the electrical resistance of the materials
varies with the amount of light striking.
• (iii) The Photovoltaic Cell or solar cell
- produce an electrical current when
connected to the load.

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What is an LDR Sensor?
An LDR sensor, also known as a Light Dependent Resistor, is a passive electronic component that
detects light in its environment. This remarkable device plays a crucial role in various applications
by changing its electrical resistance based on the intensity of light it's exposed to. The LDR
sensor working principle relies on photoconductivity, which allows it to convert changes in
illumination into electrical signals that can be measured and interpreted.

Components of an LDR Sensor

The structure of an LDR sensor is relatively simple yet effective. It consists of a light-sensitive
semiconductor material, typically cadmium sulfide (CdS), deposited on an insulating substrate
like ceramic. The photosensitive material is arranged in a zig-zag pattern to maximize its surface
area and sensitivity to light. Two metal contacts are placed at both ends of this pattern to create
an electrical connection. A transparent coating is applied on top to protect the photosensitive
material while allowing light to pass through.
How LDRs Detect
Working Principle of LDR Sensors
The LDR sensor working principle is based on photoconductivity, a fascinating optical phenomenon.
When light strikes the surface of an LDR, it has an influence on the material's conductivity. This
process begins when photons from the incident light hit the photosensitive material, typically
cadmium sulfide (CdS). If these photons have energy greater than the material's bandgap, they
excite electrons in the valence band, causing them to jump to the conduction band.
As more electrons make this transition, the number of charge carriers in the material increases. This
leads to a decrease in the LDR's resistance and an increase in its conductivity. The relationship
between light intensity and resistance in an LDR is inversely proportional, making it an effective tool
for detecting changes in ambient light levels.
Resistance Changes in Light and Dark
The sensitivity of an LDR sensor to light variations is remarkable. In complete darkness, an LDR can
have a resistance as high as several megaohms. However, when exposed to bright light, this
resistance can drop dramatically to just a few hundred ohms. This significant change in resistance is
what makes LDRs so valuable in various applications.
The resistance-light intensity relationship is non-linear and follows a hyperbolic curve. As the light
intensity increases, the resistance decreases rapidly at first, then more gradually. This non-linear
behavior allows LDRs to detect a wide range of light intensities, from near-darkness to bright
sunlight.
LDR(Light dependent
resistor)
• A photo resistor or light-dependent resistor (LDR) or
photocell is a light-controlled variable resistor. The
resistance of a photo resistor decreases with
increasing incident light intensity; in other words, it
exhibits photoconductivity.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
• A photo resistor is made of a high
resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a photo
resistor can have a resistance as high as a few mega
ohms (MΩ), while in the light, a photo resistor can
have a resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If
incident light on a photo resistor exceeds a
certain frequency, photons absorbed by the
semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy
to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free
electrons (and their hole partners) conduct electricity,
thereby lowering resistance.
CIRCUIT
LM35(temperature sensor)
The LM35 temperature sensor uses the basic
principle of a diode to measure known
temperature value. As we all know from
semiconductor physics, as the temperature
increases the voltage across a diode increases at a
known rate. By accurately amplifying the voltage
change, we can easily generate a voltage signal
that is directly proportional to the surrounding
temperature.
• The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit
temperature devices with an output voltage linearly
proportional to centigrade scale.
• FEATURES:
• Calibrated Directly in Celsius (Centigrade).
• Linear + 10-mV/°C Scale Factor.
• Rated for Full −55°C to 150°C Range.
• Operates from 4 V to 30 V.
• Less than 60-μA Current Drain.
• Low Self-Heating, 0.08°C in Still Air.
• APPLICATIONS:
• Fire alarm systems
• Fire extinguisher robots
• Battery management
PIR(Passive infrared sensor)
PIR(Passive infrared sensor)
• Active and Passive?
• A passive infrared sensor (PIR sensor) is an
electronic sensor that measures infrared(IR) light
radiating from objects in its field of view.
• Difference between IR sensor and PIR sensor?
• What is absolute zero temperature?
• PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
• All objects with a temperature above absolute
zero emit heat energy in the form of radiation.
Usually this radiation is invisible to the human
eye because it radiates at infrared wavelengths, but it
can be detected by electronic devices designed for
such a purpose.
****The term passive in this instance refers to the
fact that PIR devices do not generate or radiate any
energy for detection purposes. They work entirely by
detecting the energy given off by other objects.PIR
sensors don't detect or measure "heat"; instead they
detect the infrared radiation emitted or reflected
from an object****
INTERNAL MECHANISM

• The change in temperature modifies position of

atoms slightly within crystal structure…polarization
of material changes… this gives rise to voltage
across the crystal..
• APPLICATIONS:
• Alarm applications
• Motion detection systems
• Automatically-activated lighting systems

• REFERENCE:
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_infrared_sensor