MEMORY SYSTEMS AND

ORGANIZATION HIERARCHIES

LECTURE 6
Memory
Memory can be categorised into two;
■ External Memory or Secondary Memory –
Comprising of Magnetic Disk, Optical Disk, Magnetic Tape i.e.
peripheral storage devices which are accessible by the processor via
I/O Module.
■ Internal Memory or Primary Memory –
Comprising of Main Memory, Cache Memory & CPU registers. This is
directly accessible by the processor
Memory
■ The memory unit is an essential component in any digital computer
since it is needed for storing programs and data
■ Most general-purpose computers would run more efficiently if they were
equipped with additional storage beyond the capacity of the main
memory. There is just not enough space in one memory unit to
accommodate all the programs used in a typical computer. Moreover,
most computer users accumulate and continue to accumulate large
amounts of data-processing software.
■ Not all accumulated information is needed by the processor at the same
time. Therefore, it is more economical to use low-cost storage devices to
serve as a backup for storing the information that is not currently used
by the CPU
Memory

■ The memory unit that communicates directly with the CPU is called
the main memory. Devices that provide backup storage are called
auxiliary memory.
■ The most common auxiliary memory devices used in computer
systems are magnetic disks and tapes. They are used for storing
system programs, large data files, and other backup information.
■ Only programs and data currently needed by the processor reside in
main memory. All other information is stored in auxiliary memory and
transferred to main memory when needed
Memory Hierarchy
■ The total memory capacity of a computer can be visualized by hierarchy
of components. The memory hierarchy system consists of all storage
devices contained in a computer system from the slow Auxiliary Memory
to fast Main Memory and to smaller Cache memory.
Characteristics of memory hierarchy
design
■ Capacity:
It is the global volume of information the memory can store. As we move from top
to bottom in the Hierarchy, the capacity increases.
■ Access Time:
It is the time interval between the read/write request and the availability of the
data. As we move from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the access time increases.
■ Performance:
One of the most significant ways to increase system performance is minimizing
how far down the memory hierarchy one has to go to manipulate data.
■ Cost per bit:
As we move from bottom to top in the Hierarchy, the cost per bit increases i.e.
Internal Memory is costlier than External Memory.
Auxiliary Memory

■ Devices that provide backup storage are called auxiliary memory. For
example: Magnetic disks and tapes are commonly used auxiliary
devices. Other devices used as auxiliary memory are magnetic drums,
magnetic bubble memory and optical disks.
■ It is not directly accessible to the CPU, and is accessed using the
Input/Output channels.
■ Auxillary memory access time is generally 1000 times that of the
main memory, hence it is at the bottom of the hierarchy.
Main Memory
The main memory is the central storage unit in a computer system. It is a
relatively large and fast memory used to store programs and data during the
computer operation. It is the central storage unit of the computer system. Main
memory is made up of RAM and ROM, with RAM integrated circuit chips holding
the major share.
■ RAM: Random Access Memory
– DRAM: Dynamic RAM, is made of capacitors and transistors, and must be
refreshed every 10~100 ms. It is slower and cheaper than SRAM.
– SRAM: Static RAM, has a six transistor circuit in each cell and retains data,
until powered off.
– NVRAM: Non-Volatile RAM, retains its data, even when turned off.
Example: Flash memory.
■ ROM: Read Only Memory, is non-volatile and is more like a permanent storage
for information. It also stores the bootstrap loader program, to load and start
the operating system when computer is turned on. PROM(Programmable
ROM), EPROM(Erasable PROM) and EEPROM(Electrically Erasable PROM) are
some commonly used ROMs.
Main memory contd

■ The main memory occupies the central position because it is

equipped to communicate directly with the CPU and with auxiliary
memory devices through Input/output processor (I/O).
■ When the program not residing in main memory is needed by the
CPU, they are brought in from auxiliary memory. Programs not
currently needed in main memory are transferred into auxiliary
memory to provide space in main memory for other programs that are
currently in use.
 Cache memory
■ The data or contents of the main memory that are used again and again
by CPU, are stored in the cache memory so that we can easily access that
data in shorter time.
■ Whenever the CPU needs to access memory, it first checks the cache
memory. If the data is not found in cache memory then the CPU moves
onto the main memory. It also transfers block of recent data into the cache
and keeps on deleting the old data in cache to accommodate the new one.
Hit ratio
The performance of cache memory is measured in terms of a quantity called
hit ratio. When the CPU refers to memory and finds the word in cache it is
said to produce a hit. If the word is not found in cache, it is in main memory
then it counts as a miss.
■ The ratio of the number of hits to the total CPU references to memory is
called hit ratio.
hit ratio = hit / (hit + miss)
Discuss in class

– associative mapping
– direct mapping
Memory access methods
■ Each memory type, is a collection of numerous memory locations. To
access data from any memory, first it must be located and then the
data is read from the memory location. Following are the methods to
access information from memory locations:
■ Random Access: Main memories are random access memories, in
which each memory location has a unique address. Using this unique
address any memory location can be reached in the same amount of
time in any order.
■ Sequential Access: This methods allows memory access in a
sequence or in order.
■ Direct Access: In this mode, information is stored in tracks, with
each track having a separate read/write head.
MEMORY CONNECTION TO CPU

■ RAM and ROM chips are connected to a CPU through the data and
address buses. The low-order lines in the address bus select the byte
within the chips and other lines in the address bus select a particular
chip through its chip select inputs
■ This configuration gives a memory capacity of 512 bytes of RAM and
512 bytes of ROM. Each RAM receives the seven low order bits of the
address bus to select one of 128 possible bytes. The particular RAM
chip selected is determined from lines 8 and 9 in the address bus.
■ This is done through a 2 × 4 decoder whose outputs go to the SCI
input in each RAM chip. Thus, when address lines 8 and 9 are equal to
00, the first RAM chip is selected. When 01, the second RAM chip is
selected, and so on. The RD and WR outputs from the microprocessor
are applied to the inputs of each RAM chip.
MEMORY CONNECTION TO CPU

■ The selection between RAM and ROM is achieved through bus line 10.
The RAMs are selected when the bit in this line is 0, and the ROM
when the bit is 1. The other chip select input in the ROM is connected
to the RD control line for the ROM chip to be enabled only during a
read operation.
■ Address bus lines 1 to 9 are applied to the input address of ROM
without going through the decoder. This assigns addresses 0 to 511 to
RAM and 512 to 1023 to ROM. The data bus of the ROM has only an
output capability, whereas the data bus connected to the RAMs can
transfer information in both directions.
 Magnetic memory

■ Magnetic storage or magnetic recording is the storage of data on a

magnetized medium. Magnetic storage uses different patterns of
magnetisation in a magnetisable material to store data and is a form of
non-volatile memory. The information is accessed using one or more
read/write heads.
■ Examples of magnetic storage media include hard disks floppy disks,
magnetic recording tape, and magnetic stripes on credit cards.
Design of magnetic disks

■ The entire disk is divided into platters.

■ Each platter consists of concentric circles called as tracks.
■ These tracks are further divided into sectors which are the smallest
divisions in the disk.
Design cont’d

■ There exists a mechanical arm called as Read / Write head.

■ It is used to read from and write to the disk.
■ Head has to reach at a particular track and then wait for the rotation
of the platter.
■ The rotation causes the required sector of the track to come under the
head.
■ Each platter has 2 surfaces- top and bottom and both the surfaces are
used to store the data.
■ Each surface has its own read / write head.
 Design
■ Information is written to and read from the storage medium as it
moves past devices called read-and-write heads that operate very
close (often tens of nanometers) over the magnetic surface.
■ The read-and-write head is used to detect and modify the
magnetisation of the material immediately under it. There are two
magnetic polarities, each of which is used to represent either 0 or 1.
■ The magnetic surface is conceptually divided into many small sub-
micrometer-sized magnetic regions, referred to as magnetic domains,
(although these are not magnetic domains in a rigorous physical
sense), each of which has a mostly uniform magnetisation.
Design

■ Due to the polycrystalline nature of the magnetic material each of

these magnetic regions is composed of a few hundred magnetic
grains.
■ Magnetic grains are typically 10 nm in size and each form a single
true magnetic domain
■ A write head magnetises a region by generating a strong local
magnetic field, and a read head detects the magnetisation of the
regions.
Magnetic Read and Write
Mechanisms
Data are recorded on and later retrieved from the disk via a
conducting coil named the head; in many systems, there are two
heads, a read head and a write head.
During a read or write operation, the head is stationary while the
platter rotates beneath it.
Write
■ The write mechanism exploits the fact that electricity flowing through a
coil produces a magnetic field.
■ Electric pulses are sent to the write head, and the resulting magnetic
patterns are recorded on the surface below, with different patterns for
positive and negative currents.
■ The write head itself is made of easily magnetizable material and is in
the shape of a rectangular doughnut with a gap along one side and a
few turns of conducting wire along the opposite side
■ An electric current in the wire induces a magnetic field across the gap,
which in turn magnetizes a small area of the recording medium.
Reversing the direction of the current reverses the direction of the
magnetization on the recording medium
 Read
■ The traditional read mechanism exploits the fact that a magnetic field
moving relative to a coil produces an electrical current in the coil.
When the surface of the disk passes under the head, it generates a
current of the same polarity as the one already recorded
■ The structure of the head for reading is in this case essentially the
same as for writing and therefore the same head can be used for
both.
■ Such single heads are used in floppy disk systems and in older rigid
disk systems.
Data Organization and
Formatting
■ The head is a relatively small device capable of reading from or
writing to a portion of the platter rotating beneath it. This gives rise to
the organization of data on the platter in a concentric set of rings,
called tracks.
■ Each track is the same width as the head. There are thousands of
tracks per surface. Figure 6.2 depicts this data layout.
■ Adjacent tracks are separated by gaps. This prevents, or at least
minimizes, errors due to misalignment of the head or simply
interference of magnetic fields.
■ Data are transferred to and from the disk in sectors.There are typically
hundreds of sectors per track, and these may be of either fixed or
variable length.
Disk Performance Parameters-

■ The time taken by the disk to complete an I/O request is called as

disk service time or disk access time.
Components that contribute to the service time are-
■ Seek time
■ Rotational latency
■ Data transfer rate
■ Controller overhead
1. Seek Time-
■ The time taken by the read / write head to reach the desired track is
called as seek time.
■ It is the component which contributes the largest percentage of the disk
service time.
■ The lower the seek time, the faster the I/O operation

2. Rotational Latency-
■ The time taken by the desired sector to come under the read / write head
is called as rotational latency.
■ It depends on the rotation speed of the spindle.
3. Data Transfer Rate-
■ The amount of data that passes under the read / write head in a given
amount of time is called as data transfer rate.
■ The time taken to transfer the data is called as transfer time.

It depends on the following factors-

■ Number of bytes to be transferred
■ Rotation speed of the disk
■ Density of the track
■ Speed of the electronics that connects the disk to the computer
4. Controller Overhead-
■ The overhead imposed by the disk controller is called as controller
overhead.
■ Disk controller is a device that manages the disk.

5. Queuing Delay-
■ The time spent waiting for the disk to become free is called as
queuing delay.
Data Organization and
Formatting
■ A bit near the center of a rotating disk travels past a fixed point (such
as a read–write head) slower than a bit on the outside. Therefore,
some way must be found to compensate for the variation in speed so
that the head can read all the bits at the same rate.
■ This can be done by increasing the spacing between bits of
information recorded in segments of the disk. The information can
then be scanned at the same rate by rotating the disk at a fixed
speed, known as the constant angular velocity(CAV).Figure 6.3a shows
the layout of a disk using CAV.
■ The disk is divided into a number of pie-shaped sectors and into a
series of concentric tracks.
Data Organization and
Formatting
■ The advantage of using CAV is that individual blocks of data can be
directly addressed by track and sector. To move the head from its
current location to a specific address, it only takes a short movement
of the head to a specific track and a short wait for the proper sector to
spin under the head.
Data Organization and
Formatting
■ The disadvantage of CAV is that the amount of data that can be stored
on the long outer tracks is the only same as what can be stored on the
short inner tracks. Because the density, in bits per linear inch, increases
in moving from the outermost track to the innermost track, disk storage
capacity in a straightforward CAV system is limited by the maximum
recording density that can be achieved on the innermost track.
■ Some means is needed to locate sector positions within a track. Clearly,
there must be some starting point on the track and a way of identifying
the start and end of each sector. These requirements are handled by
means of control data recorded on the disk. Thus, the disk is formatted
with some extra data used only by the disk drive and not accessible to
the user.
.
Memory Organization

A memory unit is the collection of storage units or devices together. The

memory unit stores the binary information in the form of bits. Generally,
memory/storage is classified into 2 categories:
■ Volatile Memory: This loses its data, when power is switched off.
■ Non-Volatile Memory: This is a permanent storage and does not
lose any data when power is switched off.
Design cont’d
■ Due to the polycrystalline nature of the magnetic material each of
these magnetic regions is composed of a few hundred magnetic grains.
■ Magnetic grains are typically 10 nm in size and each form a single true
magnetic domain.
■ Each magnetic region in total forms a magnetic dipole which generates
a magnetic field. In older hard disk drive (HDD) designs the regions
were oriented horizontally and parallel to the disk surface, but
beginning about 2005, the orientation was changed to perpendicular to
allow for closer magnetic domain spacing
■ For reliable storage of data, the recording material needs to resist self-
demagnetisation, which occurs when the magnetic domains repel each
other. Magnetic domains written too close together in a weakly
magnetisable material will degrade over time due to rotation of the
magnetic moment of one or more domains to cancel out these forces.
The domains rotate sideways to a halfway position that weakens the
readability of the domain and relieves the magnetic stresses
Design contd
.
■ A write head magnetises a region by generating a strong local
magnetic field, and a read head detects the magnetisation of the
regions.
■ In today's heads, the read and write elements are separate, but in
close proximity, on the head portion of an actuator arm. The read
element is typically magneto-resistive while the write element is
typically thin-film inductive.
■ The heads are kept from contacting the platter surface by the air that
is extremely close to the platter; that air moves at or near the platter
speed. The record and playback head are mounted on a block called a
slider, and the surface next to the platter is shaped to keep it just
barely out of contact. This forms a type of air bearing.
Magnetic Read and Write
Mechanisms cont’d
■ Contemporary rigid disk systems use a different read mechanism,
requiring a separate read head, positioned for convenience close to
the write head.
■ The read head consists of a partially shielded magneto resistive (MR)
sensor. The MR material has an electrical resistance that depends on
the direction of the magnetization of the medium moving under it.
■ By passing a current through the MR sensor, resistance changes are
detected as voltage signals.
■ The MR design allows higher-frequency operation, which equates to
greater storage densities and operating speeds.
THE END