SEMICONDUCTORS

SEMICONDUCTORS
SEMICONDUCTORS

INTRODUCTION
SEMICONDUCTORS
A vacuum diode has two electrodes, anode and cathode.
Tetrode has 4
Vacuum tubes (valves)electrodes and pentode
has 5 electrodes

Vacuum diodes Vacuum triodes

cathode anode cathode plate grid

SEMICONDUCTORS
Devices in which a controlled flow of electrons can be obtained are the
basic building blocks of all the electronic circuits.

What are valves?

In a vacuum tube, the electrons are supplied by a heated cathode and

controlled flow of these electrons in vacuum is obtained by varying the
voltage between its different electrodes.
SEMICONDUCTORS

Vacuum
These is required
vacuum in the inter-
tube devices are bulky,
In these devices the electrons can flow only
electrode
consumespace; otherwise
high power, the moving
operated generally
from the cathode to the anode i.e., only in one
electrons
at highmay lose(100V)
voltage their energy
and onhave
direction. Therefore, such devices are
collision with the
limited lifeair
andmolecules in their
low reliability.
generally referred to as valves.
path.
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Semiconductors
 No external heat or large evacuated space is required
 Small in size
 Consume low power
 Operated at low voltages
 Long life
 High reliability
 Cathode ray tubes (CRT) and computer monitors which work on the
principle of vacuum tubes are replaced by liquid crystal display
(LCD)
 SEMICONDUCTORS

MCQS
1. Devices in which a flow of ___ can be obtained are the
building blocks of all the electronic circuits.
a) holes
b) protons
c) electrons

d) neutrons
 SEMICONDUCTORS
2. Vacuum tubes are replaced by ....
a) conductors
b) insulators
c) valves
d) semiconductors
SEMICONDUCTORS

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS
 SEMICONDUCTORS
Solids

Crystalline solid Amorphous solid

Crystalline solid:
 In crystalline solids, the atoms or molecules are arranged in regular
periodic geometrical pattern over a long range.
 Sugar, quartz, mica, calcite, sodium chloride, diamond etc. are the
examples of crystalline solids.
SEMICONDUCTORS
 Crystalline solids are anisotropic

 They are bound by flat

What doessurfaces.
anisotropic mean?

Anisotropic means the physical properties

 Theylike
havethermal
sharp melting points.elasticity, electrical
conductivity,
conductivity, refractive index, mechanical
strength are different in different directions.
SEMICONDUCTORS
Amorphous Solids
 In amorphous solids, the atoms or molecules are arranged in
irregular pattern.
 Rubber, glass, plastic, sulphur etc. are the examples of amorphous
solids.
 Amorphous solids are isotropic.

 They do not have well defined melting and freezing points.

Isotropic means theWhat

physical
does properties are same
isotropic mean?
in all directions.
 CLASSIFICATION OF
SEMICONDUCTORS

SOLIDS:
(Based on electrical properties)
1. Conductors:
 The substances which easily allow the electric current through
them are called conductors.
Ex : Au, Ag, Cu, Al and all metals.
Properties:
i)Electrical conductivity() is high.
(  102 to 108 Sm-1 )
ii) Electrical resistivity () is low (=1/   10-2 to 10-8 m )
iii) Temperature coefficient of resistance (α) is
positive
 SEMICONDUCTORS
2. Insulators:
 The substances which do not allow the electric current through them
are called insulators.
Ex : rubber, plastic, wood, glass etc.
Properties:
i) Electrical conductivity () is low.
(  10-11 to 10-19 Sm-1 )
ii) Electrical resistivity() is high
(  1011 to 1019 m ).
iii) Temperature coefficient of resistance (α) is negative.
SEMICONDUCTORS
3. Semiconductors
 The substances whose electrical properties lie between conductors
and insulators are called semiconductors.
Ex : Germanium [Ge](Z=32) , Silicon[Si](Z=14).
Properties:
 Electrical conductivity () is higher than that of insulators but
lower than that of conductors.

cond > sc >ins (  105 to 10-6 Sm-1 )

 SEMICONDUCTORS
 Electrical resistivity() is higher than that of conductors but
lower than that of insulators.
 ins >  sc >  cond (  10-5 to 106 m )
 Temperature coefficient of resistivity (α) is negative.

( ∵R α
1
T ) conductivity conductors

n d u c tors
semico
rs
insulato
temperature
SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors

Elemental
Compound semiconductors
semiconductors

Inorganic Organic Organic polymers

Silicon Germanium

CdS,GaAs, Anthracene, Polypyrrole,

CdSe and dope polyaniline and
InP pthalocyanines polythiophene
 SEMICONDUCTORS

MCQS
1. Atoms or molecules are arranged in regular periodic
geometrical pattern over a long range are.....
a) amorphous solids
b) crystalline solids
c) insulators

d) conductors
 SEMICONDUCTORS
2. The physical properties which are different in different directions are
termed as .....
a) isotropic
b) anisotropic
c) isothermal
d) isobaric
 SEMICONDUCTORS
3. Silicon and germanium are .....
a) conductors
b) insulators
c) semiconductors
d) none of these
SEMICONDUCTORS

BAND THEORY OF
SOLIDS
SEMICONDUCTORS
BAND THEORY OF
SOLIDS:
According to “Bohr's theory of atomic spectrum” and the concept of
electronic configuration, “there are well defined discrete energy

3S
levels of electrons in an isolated atom”.

or 2P
2S
2s 1S
+ 2p
1s 3s Energy levels
3p
for isolated
atom
SEMICONDUCTORS
 As isolated atoms are brought together to form a solid crystal,
various interactions occur between neighboring atoms.
 Due to this interaction, there is no appreciable change in the energy
levels of the inner shells, but the higher (outer) energy levels are
considerably affected, without violating “Pauli’s exclusion”
principle.
SEMICONDUCTORS
 There will be splitting of a single energy level of an isolated atom into
a large number of energy levels for atoms in solid.
Conduction band

E Forbidden energy band.(Eg)

2S
g 2P
Valence bond
1S

Energy levels for atoms in solid.

SEMICONDUCTORS
 Inside the crystal each electron has a unique position and no two
electrons see exactly the same pattern of surrounding changes.
Because of this, each electron will have a different energy level.
 These different energy levels with continuous energy variation form
are called energy bands.
 The energy band which includes the energy levels of the valence
electrons is called the valence band.
 The energy band above the valence band is called the conduction
band. With no external energy, all the valence electrons will reside in
the valence band.
SEMICONDUCTORS
But
theIf thewhen
lowest
electrons
Normally it level
from
the overlaps on
theinvalence
the
conduction
band This
the
conduction
can valence
is
bandthe
easily
band case
band,
with
happens
move
is empty. intotothe
be
electrons
lower metallic
than can
the
conduction conductors.
move
highest
band. freely
level of
into it.band,
the valence

 If there is some gap between the conduction band and the valence
band, electrons in the valence band all remain bound and no free
electrons are available in the conduction band.
 This makes the material an insulator.
SEMICONDUCTORS

Then these electrons will move into the

But someThus theelectrons
of the process creates thevalence
conduction band. At the from
samethe
time they
band possibility of conduction due to
will may
creategain external
vacant energy
energy to cross
levels the
in the
gap electrons
between theinconduction
conductionband
bandandas the
valence band, where other valence
well as due to vacancies
valence band. in the
electrons can move.
valence band.
SEMICONDUCTORS
Forbidden energy gap:
 The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band is called
as forbidden energy gap.
 No electron will exist with an energy level in forbidden gap.
 The minimum energy required at 0 kelvin to produce electron hole pair in
a semiconductor is equal to forbidden energy gap.
SEMICONDUCTORS
Empty The energy band positions
Ec
ingap
a semiconductor at 0of
 TheThe
Above lowest
Ec andbetween
energy
below the top
level in theare
Eband,
v there
 the kelvin.
It may The
be upper
large, small
a large valence
conduction
number band band
of isclosely
shownand asor
spaced
Eg called
zero
bottom the conduction
depending
of the band,the
upon
conduction
E and
energy highest
levels.
C consists energy level in
material.
band of
is calledinfinitely
the large
energyas
Ev the valence
number band is shown
of closely spaced
band gap.
Ev. energy state. The lower
Filled
band, called the valence
Infinitely large number of states each band, consists of closely
occupied by two electrons at 0 Kelvin. spaced completely filled
energy states.
SEMICONDUCTORS

To understand the modification of energy

levels, consider a single ‘Si’ crystal
containing N atoms.

For ‘Si’ atom : Z = 14, electronic

configuration is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p2.

The number of valence electrons is 4. (2 s–electrons & 2 p – electrons)

SEMICONDUCTORS
Therefore, the total number of valence electrons in the ‘Si’ crystal is
4N.

The maximum number of electrons in

the outer orbit of ‘Si’ atom can be 8.
(2s electrons + 6p electrons). It means
for the 4N valence electrons there are
8N available energy states (levels).
SEMICONDUCTORS

Why is silicon preferred to germanium for

semiconductor devices?

But, if we consider the

But advantages
Peak inverse
there
voltagelisted
is a
ratingsabove,
disadvantage we
of silicon can
diodes
for
are greater than germanium
silicon over
Atdiodes.
roomThe temperature,
variation
Silicon is less ofsilicon
expensive crystal
collector
due cuts
to has
off
the fewer
current
greater free
abundance of element. The
The conclude
structure
germanium. of that
The silicon
germanium
potential is the
crystals
barrier best
will be
of silicon
silicon is there is lot of sand
electrons
major with
raw than germanium
temperature
material for Si is
wafer crystal.
less inThis
fabrication is implies
sand and
destroyed element
at will forto
higher the semiconductor
more
that compared
silicon
compared
available in nature.to temperature.
have germanium.
much
germanium. smaller However,
collector silicon
cutoff
crystals devices and applications.
current arethannot easily
germanium. damaged by excess heat.
SEMICONDUCTORS
 Now, the process of splitting of energy levels for ‘Si’ can be
understood by considering the different cases from the following
figure.
 In the figure interatomic spacing ‘r’ is on X-axis and relative energy
of electrons on Y-axis. (r=a1A0The equilibrium distance
between atoms or actual crystal lattice spacing)
 SEMICONDUCTORS
y Case(iii):If
Case(i): If r =r =d c>> (r isa equal
(r istovery large). there
c). Whereas Thereis is 3p
no2 interatomic
Case(ii): If c < atom
interaction. r < d (rin is less than behaves as an isolated atom
C.B no change inEachthe energy levels theofcrystal
electrons in the
‘d’ but greater than c). There
Relative energy of electrons

(free
inneratom).
shells.(i.e., 1s2 ,2s2 and 2p6). (region – B)
isEg no visible splitting of
energy levels. ( region – A) 3s2
V.B
Isolated atoms
Case(vi):If
 Case(V):
Case(V): r = IfarIfr(r=r=iscIf
 Case(V):
Case(V):
Case(iii):If
bequal
=If br>
r
(r >=aisab(rto
(risaaaisequal
>
equal
i.e, the
equal
(r is
(r to
isc).
region-A
to
bb but
toThat
equal
equal totobbgreater
but
 Case(V): If r = b > a (r is equal to b 2p 6

 actual
means but spacing
than
greater
but
the greatera)athan
greater
splitting in
The thanthe
of8N
a)
than the crystal).
a)
energy
The
a) The
We
energy 8N At only
energy
levels
energy
can
levels (2s
(3s 2 electrons
levels
say (2s
 Case(vi):If
Case(iv):If but b r < =
greaterr < (r
c is
RegionB
(r
than equal
lies a) to
between
We acani.e,
b the
only actual
say 2s2
absolute
Case(iv):If
and gap
b
3p 2< zero
+6p rbetween
electrons
)
that starts< c(T=OK),
electrons)
4Nfrom(r
+6p 3s
lies
‘c’.
levels arethe
and
between
electrons) band
3p
continuously
areto areb of
levels
and
filled distributed,
continuously
andor
 and
 spacing
Case(vi):If
Case(iv):If c).bDue <
that inr to
< the
r
4N = crystal).
a
spreading
c (r
levels (r
lies is
are of Energy
equal
betweenthe
filled energy
b
and band
a
and i.e,c).
remaininggap
the
 c).Case(vi):If
4N filled
Since completely
Case(iii):Ifso itrris=
energy
number
distributed,
remaining =not ac disappears.
(r (risso
levels
‘N’
possible
Crystal isequal
is
is4N totois
lattice
equal toa
itseparated
very i.e,
large(
distinguish
spacing(a1A
not
levels
c). the
The actual
between
0
)
possible
are 1s2to the
of
The forbidden
actual
3s or4N
spreading 3penergy
spacing levels
ofthen in gap
energythe
are is defined
crystal).
very
corresponding byThe
closely ‘E ’.
upper
spacing in levels
3the are
crystal). unfilled The (empty).
lower 3ptosub
completely
g
10 from
29
atom/m
interaction the
electrons
distinguish band
)between
unfilled(empty). of
energy
belonging
between 4N
outer ofto unfilled
the3s3s and
mostand3p
electronsshell shells.
belonging
3s unfilled
spaced.
and
filled 3p
energy
levels This
isenergy highest
levels
levels2 reduces
band by energy
collection )isthe
2an ofband
few closely
energy
called
energy is called
gap. ‘Si’band”
“valence
gap
electrons toof 3sthe
(3s and
and order
3p3psub ofof neighbouring
shells. electron
“conduction
0 spaced
(V.B)
called
atoms
volts levels
abecomes
Valence
(eV). “energy band”
electrons
band (C.B).
isbappreciable.
called are
gap”. an “energy
c present only in V. dB x
band”. Interatomic spacing, (r)
SEMICONDUCTORS
Types of solids – based on band
theory(energy
S. bands)
Conductors Insulators Semi Conductors
N
O
1 V.B & CB overlap V.B is filled with V.B is completely
valence electrons filled
C.B is almost C.B is completely
empty empty
CB Overlapp CB CB
2 ed
Eg Eg  1
region
𝑬 =𝟎 𝑬 𝒈 >𝟑 𝒆𝑽
VB ev
𝒈

VB VB

3 Forbidden energy Forbidden Forbidden energy

gap energy gap gap Eg < 3eV
Eg=O eV Eg > 3eV (Eg = 0.72eV for
Ge)
(Eg = 1.1eV for
Si)
SEMICONDUCTORS

MCQS
1. Which of the following is correct?
a) Forbidden energy gap is the energy gap between
valence band and conduction band
b) Forbidden energy gap may be empty or may
be partially filled with electrons
c) No electron will exist in the forbidden energy gap
d) Both ‘a’ and ‘c’ are correct
 SEMICONDUCTORS
2. Valence band may be.....
a) completely filled or partially filled with electrons
b) empty or may completely filled with electrons
c) completely filled with electrons

d) empty
SEMICONDUCTORS

Thank
you…