Switch-mode power (SMPS) converters

Switch-mode power (SMPS) converters and DC choppers both operate in the domain of power electronics and are used for
power conversion. However, they have some key differences:
SMPS DC Chopper
• operate by periodically switching a power • chopping the DC input voltage into pulses using a
semiconductor device (such as a MOSFET or semiconductor switch (like a MOSFET or BJT).
IGBT)

• used in various applications where efficient • used for applications where voltage regulation is
power conversion and regulation are required necessary

• regulate both output voltage and current by • regulate the output voltage, though they can also
controlling the duty cycle of the switching signal. control the output current indirectly through
voltage control.

• highly efficient, especially at high loads • their efficiency may vary depending on the
specific topology and operating conditions.

• more complex in terms of design and control • generally simpler in terms of design and control
circuitry due to the presence of additional compared to SMPS converters, especially for
components such as transformers and feedback basic voltage regulation tasks.
loops for regulation.
 NONISOLATED SWITCHED-MODE DC-TO-DC CONVERTERS
The most common topologies of non-isolated switched-mode dc-to-dc converters are buck, boost, buck–boost, Cuk ̂ ,
SEPIC, and Zeta. Like choppers, dc-to-dc converters are supplied from a diode rectifier, or a battery, via a capacitive dc
link.

Buck Converter
Circuit diagram of the buck (step-down) converter, shown in Figure 8.1, is identical to that of the step-down, first-
quadrant chopper
The difference equation for the inductor can be written as

During the time when the switch is on, vD equals the input voltage, Vi, and
the inductor current increases by

When the switch is off during the Δt = (1 − d)Tsw interval, the diode is forced to carry the inductor current, so vD = 0.
The inductor current decreases, and by the end of the switching cycle it has changed by
In the steady state, ΔIL(ON) = –ΔIL(OFF) = ΔIL, where ΔIL denotes the peak-to-peak amplitude of the inductor current ripple, and
the resultant equation

can be solved for Vo to give

Selected waveforms, specifically those of the inductor current, iL, capacitor current, iC, diode current, iD, input current, ii,
and voltage, vD, across the diode, are shown in Figure 8.2.
An ideal dc-output voltage assumed so far would require an infinitely high capacitance, C, of the capacitor or an
infinitely high switching frequency, fsw. Therefore, in practice, the output voltage, vo, is somewhat rippled. Waveforms
of the capacitor current and output voltage, the latter given by

are shown in Figure 8.3. The peak-to-peak amplitude, ΔVo, of the voltage ripple can be calculated as

where ΔQ is the charge increment in the capacitor,

represented in Figure 8.3 by the triangle ABC. Thus,

Equation (8.9) quantifies the impact of parameters L and C and the switching frequency on ripple of the output voltage
based on Eq. (8.3), the condition for the continuous conduction mode can be written as

When designing a buck converter, Eqs. (8.9) and (8.11) facilitate proper selection of the inductance, capacitance,
and switching frequency.
Boost Converter The boost (step-up) converter, shown in Figure 8.4

The output voltage

the peak-to-peak amplitude, Δii , of ripple of the input current, ii, can be expressed as

while the average input current, Ii, can be calculated from the power balance
Waveforms of the switch current, iS, capacitor current, iC, diode current, iD, input current, ii, and voltage, vS, across the
switch are shown in Figure 8.5.
Figure 8.6 illustrates the impact of capacitor current on the ripple of the output voltage.

Equation (8.7) can be again be used, in which ΔQ,

represented by rectangle ABC0, is given by

For the continuous conduction mode, the average inductor current, I i, must be greater than ΔIi/2 (see Figure 8.5).
Based on Eqs. (8.12), (8.13), and (8.15), the continuous conduction condition can thus be expressed as
For instance, for a boost converter with a passive load, the output voltage can be shown to be

where rL denotes the ratio of resistance of the inductor to the load resistance.
The voltage gain, KV ≡ Vo/Vi, as a function of d for various values of r L is shown in Figure 8.7.
Buck–Boost Converter
In the buck–boost converter, shown in Figure 8.8, the output voltage can be made less than, equal to, or greater than the
input voltage.
As in the boost converter, turning the switch on causes the inductor
current, iL, to increase by

When the switch turns off, the diode is forced to conduct the inductor
current, and the output voltage, Vo, appears across the inductor. Now,
by the end of the switching cycle, the inductor current decreases by

As seen from Eq. (8.25), the output voltage is negative, that is, inverted
with respect to the input voltage.

As in the boost converter, the maximum voltage gain is limited by the resistances of components (see Figure 8.7).
The average inductor current, IL, determined from equations
Waveforms of the inductor current, iL, capacitor current, iC,
diode current, iD, input current, ii, and voltage, vL, across the
inductor are shown in Figure 8.9.

Notice the apparent similarity of Figures 8.5 and 8.9. In

particular, the capacitor current has the same waveform as that
in the boost converter (see Figure 8.5).
Consequently, the output voltage ripple in the buck–boost
converter can be described by Eqs. (8.17) and (8.18) derived for
the boost converter
In the continuous conduction mode,
Cuk Converter
In contrast to the buck–boost converter, instead of the inductor, the Cuk converter (so called after its inventor) uses an
extra capacitor for storage and transfer of energy.
As seen in Figure 8.10, two inductors are employed to smooth the input current, ii, and the current, i L2, supplying the
output stage of the converter.

This allows the significant reduction of the output capacitance, C2, and of the possible line filter.
As the initial conditions, constant currents in the inductors and constant voltages across the capacitors are assumed.
Specifically, iL1(t) = Ii, iL2(t) = IL2, vC1(t) = VC1, and vC2(t) = Vo.
With the switch on, the diode is off and

When the switch turns off, the diode is forced to conduct the inductor currents, i L1 and iL2, and

In the steady state, the average charge received by capacitor C1 over a switching cycle is zero, that is,

and, after rearrangement,

equals the average power, Po, delivered to the output stage of the converter and given by

Relation (8.41) is identical with that for the buck–boost converter (see Eq. 8.25).
When the switch is on, the input voltage, Vi, is impressed across inductor L1 for the d Tsw period, causing current ii to
increase by

During the off interval

,
(8.42a)

At the same time, the voltage across inductor L2 is

Note that when the switch is off, the voltage, vs, across the switch equals vC1, given by Eq. (8.44). Thus,

The same voltage appears across the diode when the switch is on.
Current and voltage waveforms in the Cuk converter are shown in Figure 8.11.
As in the other converters, for continuous conduction, the average current in the inductors must be greater than half of
the respective ripple amplitude, ΔIi and ΔIL2. Based on Eqs. (8.37), (8.41), (8.42), and (8.45), conditions
Example 8.1
A buck converter supplied from a 12-V dc source operates with the switching frequency of 10 kHz. The maximum load
resistance is 6 Ω, and the output capacitor has the capacitance of 20 μF. Find:
(a) the minimum inductance of the output inductor required for continuous conduction
(b) the required duty ratio of the switch to produce the output voltage of 9 V, and
(c) the peak-to-peak amplitude of ripple of the output voltage.
Example 8.2
A boost converter supplied from a 6-V dc source is to produce the output voltage of 15 V. Assuming an ideal, lossless
inductor, find the required duty ratio of the switch. What is the output voltage if the resistance of the inductor is 2% of
that of the load?
Example 8.3
In a Cuk converter operating at 50 kHz, L, = L2 = 1 mH and C 1, = 5 pF. The output capacitor is sufficiently large to yield an
essentially constant output voltage. Here vd = 10 V and the output V, is regulated to be constant at 5 V. It is supplying 5
W to a load. Assume ideal components.
Calculate the percentage errors in assuming a constant voltage across C 1, or in assuming constant currents iL1 and iL2.
Solution
(a) If the voltage across C1 is assumed to be constant, from Eq. 8.44

Initially, we will assume the current conduction to be continuous. Therefore, from Eq. 8.41,
𝑑 5
=
1− 𝑑 10
∴ 𝑑 =0.333

From eq. 8.42 a

At an output load of 5 W, using Eq. 8.38, and 8.39, Ii = 0.5 A, and Io = 1 A
Since ΔIL1< Ii (=IL1) and ΔIL2< Io (=IL2), the mode of operation is continuous, as assumed earlier.

= 1.33 V