• Power electronics combines power, electronics, and control.

Control deals with the steady-state and dynamic

characteristics of closed-loop systems.
• Power deals with the static and rotating power equipment for the generation, transmission, and distribution of
electric energy.
• Electronics deal with the solid-state devices and circuits for signal processing to meet the desired control
objectives.
Power electronics may be defined as the art of converting electrical energy from one form to another in an efficient,
clean, compact, and robust manner for the energy utilization to meet the desired needs.
Types of Power Electronic Circuits

1. Diode rectifiers (Uncontrolled Rectifier)

2. Ac–dc converters (controlled rectifiers)
3. Dc–dc converters (dc choppers)
4. Dc–ac converters (inverters)
5. Ac–ac converters (ac voltage controllers)
6. Static switches
Diode rectifiers.
A diode rectifier circuit converts ac voltage into
a fixed dc voltage and is shown in Figure 1.3.
• A diode conducts when its anode voltage is
higher than the cathode voltage, and it
offers a very small voltage drop, ideally zero
voltage, but typically 0.7 V.
• A diode behaves as an open circuit when its
cathode voltage is higher than the anode
voltage, and it offers a very high resistance,
ideally infinite resistance, but typically 10
kΩ.
• The output voltage is a pulsating dc, but it is
distorted and contains harmonics.
• The average output voltage can be
calculated from Vo(AVG) = 2 Vm/π.
• The input voltage vi to the rectifier could be either single phase or
three phase.
Dc–dc converters.
• A dc–dc converter is also known as a
chopper, or switching regulator, and
a transistor chopper is shown in
Figure 1.4.
• When transistor Q1 is turned on by
applying a gate voltage VGE, the dc
supply is connected to the load and
the instantaneous output voltage is
vo = +Vs.
• When transistor Q1 is turned off by
removing the gate voltage VGE, the
dc supply is disconnected from the
load and the instantaneous output
voltage is vo = 0.
The average output voltage becomes
Vo(AVG) = t1Vs/T = δ Vs.
δ is known as the duty cycle of the chopper.
Dc–ac converters.
• A dc–ac converter is also known as an
inverter. A single-phase transistor
inverter is shown in Figure 1.5.
• The rms value of the output voltage
becomes Vo(rms) = VS.
• However, the output voltage contains
harmonics which could be filtered out
before supplying to the load.
Ac–dc converters.
• A single-phase converter with two
natural commutated thyristors is
shown in Figure 1.6.
• A thyristor normally remains in an
off-state and can be turned on by
applying a gate pulse of
approximately 10 V with a duration
100 μs.
The average output voltage can be
found from Vo(AVG) = (1 + cos α)Vm/π.
• At a delay angle of α = 0, this
converter operates as a diode
rectifier
• These converters are also known as
controlled rectifiers.
Ac–ac converters.
These converters are used to
obtain a variable ac output
voltage vo from a fixed ac source
and a single-phase converter
with a TRIAC is shown in Figure
1.7.
• A TRIAC allows a current flow
in both directions. It can be
turned on by applying gate
voltages at ωt = α for a
current flow in the positive
direction, and also at ωt = π +
α for a current flow in the
negative direction.

• These types of converters are

also known as ac voltage
controllers.
Static switches.
Determining the root-mean-square Values of waveforms
• To accurately determine the conduction losses in a device and the current ratings of the device and components,
the rms values of the current waveforms must be known.
• The rms value of a waveform i(t) can be calculated as:

where T is the time period.

If a waveform can be broken up into harmonics whose rms values can be calculated individually, the rms values of
the actual waveform can be approximated satisfactorily by combining the rms values of the harmonics.
switch specifications
Power Semi Conductor Devices
Applications of Power Devices
Diode Characteristics
Figure 2.1 shows the sectional view of a pn-junction and diode symbol.
Forward-biased region.
In the forward-biased region, VD > 0. The diode current ID is very small if the diode voltage VD is less than a specific
value VTD (typically 0.7 V). The diode conducts fully if VD is higher than this value VTD, which is referred to as the
threshold voltage, cut-in voltage, or turn-on voltage. Thus, the threshold voltage is a voltage at which the diode
conducts fully.
Let us consider a small diode voltage VD = 0.1 V, n = 1, and VT = 25.7 mV. From Eq. (2.1) we can find the corresponding
diode current ID as

Reverse-biased region. In the reverse-biased region, VD < 0. If VD is negative and >> VT, which occurs for VD < -0.1 V, the
exponential term in Eq. (2.1) becomes negligibly small compared with unity and the diode current ID becomes

which indicates that the diode current ID in the reverse direction is constant and equals IS.

Breakdown region. In the breakdown region, the reverse voltage is high, usually with a magnitude greater than 1000 V.
The magnitude of the reverse voltage may exceed a specified voltage known as the breakdown voltage VBR. With a small
change in reverse voltage beyond VBR, the reverse current increases rapidly. The operation in the breakdown region will
not be destructive, provided that the power dissipation is within a “safe level” that is specified in the manufacturer’s
data sheet. However, it is often necessary to limit the reverse current in the breakdown region to limit the power
dissipation within a permissible value.
Example 2.1 Finding the Saturation Current

The forward voltage drop of a power diode is VD = 1.2 V at ID = 300 A. Assuming that n = 2 and VT = 25.7 mV, find the
reverse saturation current IS.

Key Points of Section

• A diode exhibits a nonlinear v-i characteristic, consisting of three regions: forward biased, reverse-biased, and
breakdown. In the forward condition the diode drop is small, typically 0.7 V. If the reverse voltage exceeds the
breakdown voltage, the diode may be damaged.
Series-Connected Diodes
In many high-voltage applications (e.g., high-voltage direct current [HVDC] transmission lines), one commercially available
diode cannot meet the required voltage rating, and diodes are connected in series to increase the reverse blocking
capabilities.

In the forward-biased condition, both diodes conduct the

same amount of current, and the forward voltage drop of
each diode would be almost equal.

However, in the reverse blocking condition, each diode has

to carry the same leakage current, and as a result the
blocking voltages may differ significantly.
A simple solution to this problem, as shown in Figure 2.11a, is to force equal voltage sharing by connecting a resistor
across each diode.
Due to equal voltage sharing, the leakage current of each
diode would be different, and this is shown in Figure
2.11b.

Because the total leakage current must be shared by a

diode and its resistor,

However, IR1 = VD1/R1 and IR2 = VD2/R2 = VD1/R2.

Equation (2.12) gives the relationship between R1 and R2
If the resistances are equal, then R = R1 = R2 and the two for equal voltage sharing as
diode voltages would be slightly different depending on the
dissimilarities of the two v-i characteristics. The values of
VD1 and VD2 can be determined from Eqs. (2.14) and
(2.15):
The voltage sharing under transient conditions (e.g., due to switching loads, the initial applications of the input voltage)
are accomplished by connecting capacitors across each diode, which is shown in Figure 2.12. Rs limits the rate of rise of
the blocking voltage.
Example 2.3 Finding the voltage-Sharing resistors
Two diodes are connected in series, as shown in Figure 2.11a, to share a total dc reverse voltage of VD = 5 kV. The reverse
leakage currents of the two diodes are IS1 = 30 mA and IS2 = 35 mA.
(a) Find the diode voltages if the voltage-sharing resistances are equal, R1 = R2 = R = 100 kΩ.
(b) Find the voltage-sharing resistances R1 and R2 if the diode voltages are equal, VD1 = VD2 = VD/2.
Parallel-Connected Diodes
In high-power applications, diodes are connected in parallel to increase the current carrying capability to meet the
desired current requirements.
Uniform current sharing can be achieved by providing equal inductances (e.g., in the leads) or by connecting current-
sharing resistors (which may not be practical due to power losses); this is depicted in Figure 2.14.

The resistors of Figure 2.14a help current sharing under steady-state conditions. Current sharing under dynamic
conditions can be accomplished by connecting coupled inductors as shown in Figure 2.14b.

If the current through D1 rises, the L di/dt across L1 increases, and a corresponding voltage of opposite polarity is induced
across inductor L2. The result is a low-impedance path through diode D2, and the current is shifted to D2. The inductors
may generate voltage spikes, and they may be expensive and bulky, especially at high currents.
Diode Switched RC Load With initial condition vc (t = 0) = 0, the solution of Eq.
(2.18) (which is derived in Appendix D, Eq. D.1) gives the
Figure 2.15a shows a diode circuit with an RC load. charging current i as

When the switch S1 is closed at t = 0, the charging current i that

flows through the capacitor can be found from
Example 2.4 Finding the peak Current and energy loss in an RC Circuit
A diode circuit is shown in Figure 2.16a with R = 44 Ω and C = 0.1 μF. The capacitor has an initial voltage, Vc0 = Vc(t = 0) =
220 V. If switch S1 is closed at t = 0, determine (a) the peak diode current, (b) the energy dissipated in the resistor R, and
(c) the capacitor voltage at t = 2 μs.
Diode Switched RL load

A diode circuit with an RL load is shown in Figure 2.17a. When switch S1 is closed at t = 0, the current i through the
inductor increases and is expressed as

The rate of change of this current can be obtained

from Eq. (2.25) as

and the initial rate of rise of the current (at t = 0) is

obtained from Eq. (2.26):

The voltage vL across the inductor is

With initial condition i1(t = 0) = 0, the solution of Eq. (2.24)

(which is derived in Appendix D, Eq. D.2) yields
where L/R = τ is the time constant of an RL load.
Example 2.5: Finding the Steady-State Current and the energy Stored in an Inductor
A diode RL circuit is shown in Figure 2.17a with VS = 220 V, R = 4Ω, and L = 5 mH. The inductor has no initial current. If
switch S1 is closed at t = 0, determine (a) the steady-state diode current, (b) the energy stored in the inductor L, and (c) the
initial di/dt.
Diode Switched LC Load
A diode circuit with an LC load is shown in Figure 2.18a. The source voltage Vs is a dc constant voltage. When switch S1 is
closed at t = 0, the charging current i of the capacitor is expressed as

With initial conditions i(t = 0) = 0 and vc(t = 0) = 0, Eq. (2.29) can

be solved for the capacitor current i as (in Appendix D, Eq. D.3)

At a time, t = t1 = , the diode current i falls to zero and the capacitor is charged to 2Vs. The waveforms for the
voltage vL and current i are shown in Figure 2.18b.
Notes:

• Because there is no resistance in the circuit, there can be no energy loss. Thus, in the absence of any resistance, the
current of an LC circuit oscillates and the energy is transferred from C to L and vice versa.

• D1 is connected in series with the switch, and it will prevent any negative current flow through the switch. In the
absence of the diode, the LC circuit will continue to oscillate forever. Normally, an electronic switch (BJT or MOSFET or
IGBT) will not allow reverse current flow. The switch along with the diode D1 emulates the switching behavior of an
electronic switch.

• The output of the capacitor C can be connected to other similar circuits consisting of a switch, and a diode connected in
series with an L and a C to obtain multiples of the dc supply voltage VS. This technique is used to generate a high
voltage for pulse power and superconducting applications.
Example 2.6 Finding the voltage and Current in an LC Circuit

A diode circuit with an LC load is shown in Figure 2.19a with the capacitor having an initial voltage, Vc (t = 0) =-Vc0 = V0-
220 V; capacitance, C = 20 μF; and inductance, L = 80 μH. If switch S1 is closed at t = 0, determine (a) the peak current
through the diode, (b) the conduc tion time of the diode, and (c) the final steady-state capacitor voltage.
Diode Switched RLC Load
A diode circuit with an RLC load is shown in Figure 2.20. If switch S1 is closed at t = 0, we can use the KVL to write the
equation for the load current i as

Under final steady-state conditions, the capacitor is charged

to the source voltage Vs and the steady-state current is
zero. The forced component of the current in Eq. (2.37) is
also zero.
The characteristic equation in Laplace’s domain of s is

With initial conditions i1t = 0) = 0 and Vc(t = 0)

= Vc0. Differentiating Eq. (2.36) and dividing
both sides by L gives the characteristic equation
The solution for the current, which depends on the values of α and ω0, would follow one of the three possible cases.

A switched underdamped RLC circuit is used to convert a dc supply voltage into an ac voltage at the damped resonant
frequency.
Notes:
• The constants A1 and A2 can be determined from the initial conditions of the circuit. Solving for these two constants
requires two boundary equations at i (t = 0) and di/dt(t = 0). The ratio of α/ω0 is commonly known as the damping ratio,
δ = . Power electronic circuits are generally underdamped such that the circuit current becomes near sinusoidal, to
cause a nearly sinusoidal ac output or to turn off a power semiconductor device.

• For critical and underdamped conditions, the current i(t) will not oscillate and there is no need for the diode.
• Equations (2.43), (2.44), and (2.26) are the general forms for the solution of any second-order differential equations.
The particular form of the solution will de pend on the values of R, L, and C.
Example 2.7 Finding the Current in an RLC Circuit
The second-order RLC circuit of Figure 2.20 has the dc source voltage Vs = 220 V, inductance L = 2 mH, capacitance C = 0.05
μF, and resistance R = 160 Ω. The initial value of the capacitor voltage is Vc(t = 0) = Vc0 = 0 and conductor current i(t = 0) =
0. If switch S1 is closed at t = 0, determine (a) an expression for the current i(t), and (b) the conduction time of diode. (c)
Draw a sketch of i(t).
Freewheeling Diodes with Switched RL Load
If switch S1 in Figure 2.24a is closed for time t1, a current is established through the load; then if the switch is opened, a path
must be provided for the current in the inductive load.
Otherwise, the inductive energy induces a very high voltage,
and this energy is dissipated as heat across the switch as
sparks. This is normally done by connecting a diode Dm as
shown in Figure 2.24a, and this diode is usually called a free-
wheeling diode.
At t = 0 + (after a finite time at the start of the time clock
after zero), the switch has just closed, and the current is still
zero. If there was no inductor, the current would rise
instantaneously.
But due to the inductor, the current will rise exponentially
with an initial slope of Vs/L as given by Eq. (2.27).
The circuit operation can be divided into two modes. Mode
1 begins when the switch is closed at t = 0, and mode 2
begins when the switch is then opened.
Variables i1 and i2 are defined as the instantaneous currents
The equivalent circuits for the modes are shown in for mode 1 and mode 2, respectively; t1 and t2 are the
Figure 2.24b. corresponding durations of these modes.
Example 2.8 Finding the Stored energy in an Inductor with a Freewheeling Diode

In Figure 2.24a, the resistance is negligible (R = 0), the source voltage is Vs = 220 V (constant time), and the load inductance
is L = 220 μH. (a) Draw the waveform for the load current if the switch is closed for a time t1 = 100 μs and is then opened. (b)
Determine the final energy stored in the load inductor.
b. When switch S1 is opened at a time t = t1, the load
current starts to flow through diode Dm. Because there
is no dissipative (resistive) element in the circuit, the
load current remains constant at = 100 A and the
energy stored in the inductor is = 1.1 J. The current
waveforms are shown in Figure 2.25b.