Chapter 2: Data Manipulation

2.1 Computer Architecture

2.2 Machine Language
2.3 Program Execution
2.4 Arithmetic/Logic Instructions
2.5 Communicating with Other Devices

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Computer Architecture

• Central Processing Unit (CPU) or processor

– Arithmetic/Logic unit versus Control unit
– Registers
• General purpose
• Special purpose
• Bus
• Motherboard

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CPU and main memory connected via a bus

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 Computer Block Diagram
CPU

ALU
Input Output
Unit Unit
Control Register
Unit Unit

Data and Address Busses

Memory

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Stored Program Concept
A program can be encoded as bit patterns and
stored in main memory. From there, the CPU
can then extract the instructions and execute
them. In turn, the program to be executed can
be altered easily.

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 Terminology

• Machine instruction: An instruction (or

command) encoded as a bit pattern
recognizable by the CPU.
• Machine language: The set of all instructions
recognized by a machine.

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 Machine Instruction Types
• Data Transfer: copy data from one location to
another
• Arithmetic/Logic: use existing bit patterns to
compute a new bit patterns
• Control: direct the execution of the program

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 Central Processing Unit
• A computer’s CPU (Central Processing Unit)
controls the manipulation of data.
• The CPU consists of the arithmetic / logic unit
(ALU) and the control unit (CU).
The CU coordinates the computer’s
activities.
The ALU performs operations on data.

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• The CPU contains cells or registers for
temporary storage of information. Registers are
conceptually like main memory cells.
• General-purpose registers serve as temporary
holding places for data being manipulated by
the CPU. They hold inputs to the ALU and
store results from the ALU.
• Data in main memory are moved to these
registers to be operated on by the CPU (CU
moves the data, ALU operates on them).
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Figure 2.2 Adding values stored in
memory

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Figure 2.3 Dividing values stored in
memory

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Figure 2.4 The architecture of the
machine described in Appendix C

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 Parts of a Machine Instruction

• Op-code: Specifies which operation to execute

• Operand: Gives more detailed information
about the operation
– Interpretation of operand varies depending on op-
code

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Figure 2.5 The composition of an
instruction for the machine in Appendix C

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Figure 2.6 Decoding the instruction
35A7

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Figure 2.7 An encoded version of the
instructions in Figure 2.2

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 Program Execution

• Controlled by two special-purpose registers

– Program counter: address of next instruction
– Instruction register: current instruction
• Machine Cycle
– Fetch
– Decode
– Execute

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Figure 2.8 The machine cycle

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Figure 2.10 The program from Figure 2.7
stored in main memory ready for execution

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Figure 2.11 Performing the fetch step
of the machine cycle

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Figure 2.11 Performing the fetch step
of the machine cycle (cont’d)

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How CPU works? (Video)

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Arithmetic/Logic Instructions

• Logic: AND, OR, XOR

• Rotate and Shift: circular shift, logical shift,
arithmetic shift
• Arithmetic: add, subtract, multiply, divide
– Often separate instructions for different types of
data

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 Arithmetic/Logic Operations

• Logic: AND, OR, XOR

• Rotate and Shift: circular shift, logical shift,
arithmetic shift
• Arithmetic: add, subtract, multiply, divide
– Precise action depends on how the values are
encoded (two’s complement versus floating-point).

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Figure 2.12 Rotating the bit pattern 65
(hexadecimal) one bit to the right

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Communicating with Other Devices
• Controller: An intermediary apparatus that handles
communication between the computer and a device
– Specialized controllers for each type of device
– General purpose controllers (USB and FireWire)
• Port: The point at which a device connects to a
computer
• Memory-mapped I/O: CPU communicates with
peripheral devices as though they were memory cells

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Figure 2.13 Controllers attached to a
machine’s bus

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Figure 2.14 A conceptual representation of
memory-mapped I/O

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Communicating with Other Devices
(continued)

• Direct memory access (DMA): Main memory

access by a controller over the bus.
• Von Neumann Bottleneck: Insufficient bus
speed impedes performance
• Handshaking: The process of coordinating the
transfer of data between components .

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Communicating with Other Devices
(continued)

• Parallel Communication: Several

communication paths transfer bits
simultaneously.
• Serial Communication: Bits are transferred
one after the other over a single communication
path.

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 Data Communication Rates

• Measurement units
– Bps: Bits per second
– Kbps: Kilo-bps (1,000 bps)
– Mbps: Mega-bps (1,000,000 bps)
– Gbps: Giga-bps (1,000,000,000 bps)
• Bandwidth: Maximum available rate

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